Predictors of mental health, subjective burden, and rewards in family caregivers of patients with chronic liver disease

Informal Family Care Partner Well-Being Is Diminished in End-Stage Liver Disease

BACKGROUND

Chronic liver disease is a significant global neglected public health problem. End-stage liver disease is associated with substantial symptom complexity, disability, and care needs that require assistance from informal family care partners. Research on these care partners' caregiver burden or strain, symptoms, and quality of life is sparse and has not focused on these variables as co-occurring or in the context of the quality of the relationship care partners have with the patients.

OBJECTIVES

The purpose of this study was to provide a collective presentation of patterns and determinants of well-being as measured by caregiver strain, depression, sleep, and quality of life in a cohort of informal family care partners for adult outpatients with end-stage liver disease.

METHODS

Care partners (aged >18 years) were recruited from two liver clinics within two tertiary healthcare systems and invited to complete a cross-sectional survey. They completed the Multidimensional Caregiver Strain Index, Patient Health Questionnaire, Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index, Short Form Health Survey, and Mutuality Scale. Descriptive statistics and latent class mixture modeling were used to analyze these data.

RESULTS

The sample was predominantly female and White. The well-being of care partners was diminished. Three distinct classes of well-being were identified: mildly diminished (53.2%), moderately diminished (39.0%), and severely diminished (7.8%). Those at a greater risk of worse well-being were younger and spouses and had poorer relationship quality with the patients.

DISCUSSION

To improve the well-being of care partners in moderately and severely diminished classes, assessing and addressing caregiver strain and co-occurring symptoms is essential. Addressing the strain and symptoms has the potential to maintain or optimize care partners' ability to provide care to patients. Future researchers should include longitudinal and dyadic studies to examine how patients' disease progression and symptoms may affect family care partners' well-being and vice versa.

Financial burden in adults with chronic liver disease: A scoping review

The economic burden of chronic liver disease is rising; however, the financial impact of chronic liver disease on patients and families has been underexplored. We performed a scoping review to identify studies examining financial burden (patient/family health care expenditures), financial distress (material, behavioral, and psychological consequences of financial burden), and financial toxicity (adverse health outcomes of financial distress) experienced by patients with chronic liver disease and their families. We searched MEDLINE, Embase, Cochrane Library, and the Web of Science online databases for articles published since the introduction of the Model for End-Stage Liver Disease score for liver transplantation allocation in February 2002 until July 2021. Final searches were conducted between June and July 2021. Studies were included if they examined the prevalence or impact of financial burden or distress among patients with chronic liver disease and/or their caregivers. A total of 19 observational studies met inclusion criteria involving 24,549 patients and 276 caregivers across 5 countries. High rates of financial burden and distress were reported within the study populations, particularly among patients with hepatic encephalopathy, hepatocellular carcinoma, and liver transplantation recipients. Financial burden and distress were associated with increased pre- and posttransplantation health care utilization and poor health-related quality of life as well as caregiver burden, depression, and anxiety. None of the included studies evaluated interventions to alleviate financial burden and distress. Observational evidence supports the finding that financial burden and distress are underrecognized but highly prevalent among patients with chronic liver disease and their caregivers and are associated with poor health outcomes. There is a critical need for interventions to mitigate financial burden and distress and reduce financial toxicity in chronic liver disease care.

How do income changes impact on mental health and wellbeing for working-age adults? A systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Lower incomes are associated with poorer mental health and wellbeing, but the extent to which income has a causal effect is debated. We aimed to synthesise evidence from studies measuring the impact of changes in individual and household income on mental health and wellbeing outcomes in working-age adults (aged 16-64 years).

METHODS

For this systematic review and meta-analysis, we searched MEDLINE, Embase, Web of Science, PsycINFO, ASSIA, EconLit, and RePEc on Feb 5, 2020, for randomised controlled trials (RCTs) and quantitative non-randomised studies. We had no date limits for our search. We included English-language studies measuring effects of individual or household income change on any mental health or wellbeing outcome. We used Cochrane risk of bias (RoB) tools. We conducted three-level random-effects meta-analyses, and explored heterogeneity using meta-regression and stratified analyses. Synthesis without meta-analysis was based on effect direction. Critical RoB studies were excluded from primary analyses. Certainty of evidence was assessed using Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE). This study is registered with PROSPERO, CRD42020168379.

FINDINGS

Of 16 521 citations screened, 136 were narratively synthesised (12·5% RCTs) and 86 meta-analysed. RoB was high: 30·1% were rated critical and 47·1% serious or high. A binary income increase lifting individuals out of poverty was associated with 0·13 SD improvement in mental health measures (95% CI 0·07 to 0·20; n=42 128; 18 studies), considerably larger than other income increases (0·01 SD improvement, 0·002 to 0·019; n=216 509, 14 studies). For wellbeing, increases out of poverty were associated with 0·38 SD improvement (0·09 to 0·66; n=101 350, 8 studies) versus 0·16 for other income increases (0·07 to 0·25; n=62 619, 11 studies). Income decreases from any source were associated with 0·21 SD worsening of mental health measures (-0·30 to -0·13; n=227 804, 11 studies). Effect sizes were larger in low-income and middle-income settings and in higher RoB studies. Heterogeneity was high (I²=79-87%). GRADE certainty was low or very low.

INTERPRETATION

Income changes probably impact mental health, particularly where they move individuals out of poverty, although effect sizes are modest and certainty low. Effects are larger for wellbeing outcomes, and potentially for income losses. To best support population mental health, welfare policies need to reach the most socioeconomically disadvantaged.

FUNDING

Wellcome Trust, Medical Research Council, Chief Scientist Office, and European Research Council.

The relationship between the care burden and burnout levels of primary caregivers of patients undergoing liver transplantation

PURPOSE

This study was conducted to determine the relationship between the care burden and burnout level of primary caregivers of patients undergoing liver transplantation.

DESIGN AND METHODS

The sample size of this descriptive and correlational was determined to be 202 primary caregivers via the power analysis.

FINDINGS

It can be asserted that the primary caregivers had high burnout and had moderate care burden. It was found that there was a statistically positive moderate correlation between the caregivers' care burden and burnout (p ˂ 0.05).

PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS

In the study, it was determined that primary caregivers of patients undergoing liver transplantation had higher burnout and moderate care burden. Also, care burden affected burnout.

Developing Priorities for Palliative Care Research in Advanced Liver Disease: A Multidisciplinary Approach

Individuals with advanced liver disease (AdvLD), such as decompensated cirrhosis (DC) and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), have significant palliative needs. However, little research is available to guide health care providers on how to improve key domains related to palliative care (PC). We sought to identify priority areas for future research in PC by performing a comprehensive literature review and conducting iterative expert panel discussions. We conducted a literature review using search terms related to AdvLD and key PC domains. Individual reviews of these domains were performed, followed by iterative discussions by a panel consisting of experts from multiple disciplines, including hepatology, specialty PC, and nursing. Based on these discussions, priority areas for research were identified. We identified critical gaps in the available research related to PC and AdvLD. We developed and shared five key priority questions incorporating domains related to PC. Conclusion: Future research endeavors focused on improving PC in AdvLD should consider addressing the five key priorities areas identified from literature reviews and expert panel discussions.

Intensity of care and perceived burden among informal caregivers to persons with chronic medical conditions: a systematic review and meta-analysis

PURPOSE

Informal caregivers provide ongoing assistance to a loved one with a health condition. No studies have compared caregiving intensity and perception of burden across chronic medical conditions.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Databases were searched from inception through 11 September 2020 to identify studies that included the Level of Care Index or the Zarit Burden Inventory (ZBI) among caregivers for people with chronic diseases. Pooled mean ZBI scores and 95% confidence intervals by medical condition were calculated using a random effects model and heterogeneity with I².

RESULTS

Ninety-seven included articles reported on 98 unique samples across 21 chronic diseases. No study used the Level of Care Index. Among 12 disease groups with more than one study, heterogeneity was too high (I² range: 0-99.6%, ≥76.5% in 11 groups) to confidently estimate burden. The percent of studies rated high risk of bias ranged from 0% to 98%, but all external validity items were rated as high-risk in >50% of studies.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings highlight the need for studies on caregiver burden to improve sampling techniques; better report sampling procedures and caregiver and care recipient characteristics; and develop a standard set of outcomes, including a measure of caregiving intensity. Systematic Review Registration: CRD42017080962IMPLICATIONS FOR REHABILITATIONThe amount of burden reported by caregivers to loved ones is associated with reduced physical and mental health.We found considerable heterogeneity in perceived burden reported by informal caregivers across different studies within disease groups, which is likely related to methodological issues, including sampling techniques.Health care providers who use research on caregiver burden should assess how representative study samples may be and exercise caution in drawing conclusions.

Top Ten Tips Palliative Care Clinicians Should Know About End-Stage Liver Disease

End-stage liver disease (ESLD) is an increasingly prevalent condition with high morbidity and mortality, especially for those ineligible for liver transplantation. Patients with ESLD, along with their family caregivers, have significant needs related to their quality of life, and there is increasing attention being paid to integration of palliative care (PC) principles into routine care throughout the disease spectrum. To provide upstream care for these patients and their family caregivers, it is essential for PC providers to understand their complex psychosocial and physical needs and to be aware of the unique challenges around medical decision making and end-of-life care for this patient population. This article, written by a team of liver and PC experts, shares 10 high-yield tips to help PC clinicians provide better care for patients with advanced liver disease.

Physical and Mental Quality of Life in Patients With End-Stage Liver Disease and Their Informal Caregivers

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Management of end-stage liver disease (ESLD) has implications for not only patients' quality of life (QOL), but also their caregivers'. We aimed to identify characteristics of patients with ESLD and their caregivers that are associated with QOL.

METHODS

We obtained cross-sectional baseline data from patients and their caregivers (132 dyads; 62% were married or partners), recruited from outpatient hepatology clinics within 2 healthcare centers. Patients were included if their model for end-stage liver disease score was 15 or more; caregivers were identified by the patient as the primary informal caregiver. QOL was measured by the SF-36 and relationship quality using the mutuality scale. We measured uncertainty using the uncertainty in illness scales for patients and caregivers. Multilevel modeling was used to analyze the data.

RESULTS

Refractory ascites was associated with worse physical QOL for patients (unstandardized beta [B], -9.19; standard error [SE], 2.28) and caregivers (B, -5.41; SE, 2.33); history of hepatic encephalopathy was associated with worse patient physical QOL (B, -3.86; SE, 1.65). High levels of uncertainty were associated with worse physical and mental QOL for both members of the dyads; relationship quality was significantly associated with patient mental QOL (B, 2.73; SE, 1.19).

CONCLUSIONS

Clinicians and researchers should consider the effects of ESLD on caregivers as well as their patients to optimize the QOL for both.

Moving from "I" to "We": A Grounded Theory Analysis of Couple Therapy with Liver Patients and Their Partners

Prior research indicates that couples who cope with chronic illness from a relational "we" orientation experience more positive outcomes than couples that cope individually; however, little prior research identifies clinical processes that promote reciprocity or how societal gender processes are involved. This grounded theory analysis of 25 videotaped therapy sessions with six heterosexual couples coping with chronic liver disease (LD) used a feminist-informed relational lens to focus on the clinical processes involved in shifting from an individual to a relational orientation. Findings identified three contextual barriers to attaining a "we orientation": (a) autonomy discourse, (b) illness-related power, and (c) gendered power. Analysis detailed therapist actions that decreased the impact of barriers to reciprocity and fostered relational coping. Clinical implications attend to complex intersections among gender, caregiving, and contextual barriers to reciprocity.

The impact of stressors and overload on informal caregivers of patients with cirrhosis: The first use of the Burden Scale for Family Caregivers in Brazil

INTRODUCTION

Cirrhosis affects liver functions and compromises much of the body's organs. The significant increase in chronic diseases, including cirrhosis, has led to changes in medical practice and health systems, leading the informal caregiver to play a major role because of family ties or some level of proximity to the patient, assuming daily care function. However, the burden generated by informal caregivers for uninterrupted care is present at different levels (physical, mental, social, professional, and financial) and even in the prognosis of the patient.

OBJECTIVE

The present study aims to evaluate the impact of stressors and overload on informal caregivers of cirrhosis patients.

METHOD

Cross-sectional study, conducted with 54 informal caregivers of cirrhosis patients, followed up at the Liver Transplant Service Outpatient Clinic of the University of São Paulo School of Medicine Hospital das Clínicas, where they had access to a sociodemographic questionnaire, history of the patient's disease and the scale Burden Scale for Family Caregivers.

RESULTS

It was observed that higher levels of education and income of the caregiver correlates with a lower degree of stress. In addition, there is a significant difference found in the caregiver's age variable, which indicates that the youngest are those who have the highest degree of stress. The variable Na mEg/l of the patient also presents a statistically significant difference.

CONCLUSION

Our study was a precursor using the BSFC scale of worldwide coverage and that had not yet been applied in any study in Brazil, thus allowing a look at the various aspects that affect the quality of life of caregivers of patients with cirrhosis. Our results and the literature corroborate the importance not only of the patient, but also the informal caregiver's health.

Approaches to Assessing Burden in Caregivers of Patients with Cirrhosis

Background and Aims: Being a caregiver for a patient with chronic liver disease (CLD) can be burdensome mentally, emotionally financially, and physically. The aim of this study was to systemically review the available tools and propose tools that can comprehensively evaluate caregiver burden for individuals caring for patients with CLD. Methods: We searched the PubMed database for all studies on the impact of patients with CLD on caregiver burden without timeframe restriction. Eligible studies included cohort studies, review studies, or cross-sectional studies. The number of patients and caregivers was isolated from each paper. Studies in the same categories were isolated and statistically compared. Results: A total of 13 studies meeting our inclusion criteria as stated in the methods sections were included. In total, 2528 caregivers were taking care of 2003 patients with CLD. Women made up the majority of caregivers at 78.2%, 95.7% of whom identified as the patient's spouse. Caregiver strain index is one of the most comprehensive tools; however, the questions are very general and do not fully elucidate financial strain. Beck depression and anxiety were correlated (p=0.0001), and both depression and anxiety were correlated with perceived caregiver burden (PCB) and Zarit Burden Interview (ZBI) (p=0.002). Depression scale correlated with Interpersonal Support Evaluation - Short Form, and Model for End-Stage Liver Disease score correlated with ZBI and PCB (total and in most domains; p=0.001). Patient's poorer cognitive performance correlated with higher ZBI and PCB (employed patients had higher cognitive performance and lower ZBI and PCB). Conclusions: Caregiver burden remains poorly understood due to the lack of uniformity in the assessment tools used to evaluate caregiver burden. None of the tools used to evaluate caregiver burden are comprehensive; however, most tools correlate statistically in the ability to identify caregiver burden. A comprehensive tool is lacking for identifying caregiver burden in patients with CLD.

Quality of life and care burden in primary caregivers of liver transplantation recipients in China

So far, liver transplantation (LT) has become the most effective way to treat end-stage liver-related diseases. As we all know, a stable caregiver is crucial to LT recovery. However, compared with LT patients, few studies were focused on LT caregivers.This study aimed to describe the quality of life (QoL), care burden, and their related factors in caregivers of LT patients in Shanghai, China.We collected 225 liver transplanted patients and their corresponding caregivers' social demographic and medical information; meanwhile, we assessed 225 LT recipients' caregivers' life quality; by using Caregiver Quality of Life Index-Liver Transplantation in Chinese version (CQOLC-LT), Zarit caregiver burden inventory in Chinese version (ZBI) was used to access the care burden. Self-Rating Anxiety Scale (SAS) and Center for Epidemiological Survey-Depression Scale (CES-D) were used to assess caregivers' anxiety and depression status. For physical assessment, we used Fatigue Scale-14 (FS-14). Logistic regression analysis was performed to identify clinical factors influencing QOL of LT primary caregivers.The QoL of LT caregiver was not optimistic; the care burden on caregiver was still heavy. In particular, most caregivers experienced mild to moderate mental health disorders.In general, our findings emphasized the importance of assessment of physical and mental health in primary caregivers during overall process.

An assessment of the relationship between informal caring and quality of life in older community-dwelling adults - more positives than negatives?

The main objective of the study was to apply the recently developed Index of Capability (ICECAP-O) instrument to measure and value the quality of life of a representative sample of the older South Australian population (aged ≥ 65 years) according to carer status. A Health Omnibus survey including the ICECAP-O instrument, carer status (informal carer vs. non-carer) and several socio-demographic questions was administered in 2009 as a face-to-face interview to 789 individuals aged 65 years or older in their own homes. A total of 671 individuals (85%) characterised themselves as a non-carer and 115 individuals (15%) characterised themselves as an informal carer. In general, carers exhibited relatively high quality of life as measured by the ICECAP-O, with carers having comparable mean ICECAP-O scores to non-carers in the general population [carers: mean (SD) 0.848 (0.123), non-carers: mean (SD) 0.838 (0.147)]. The results of the multivariate regression model for the total sample indicated statistically significant variations in overall ICECAP-O scores according to age (with younger participants tending to have slightly higher scores on average), country of birth (with those participants who were born in Australia having higher scores on average than those who were born elsewhere) and household income (with participants with higher income levels having higher scores on average). The results of the multivariate regression model differentiated by carer status also indicated some important differences. Specifically, average ICECAP-O scores were noticeably lower for carers who are separated or divorced and for carers who lived alone and these differences were statistically significant. The study findings provide support for the existence of process utility in informal care-giving. The provision of informal care may be associated with a positive impact upon quality of life for many caregivers, which may mediate the negative aspects arising from the burden associated with informal care-giving.

“How Much Can I Take?”: Predictors of Perceived Burden for Relatives of People with Chronic Illness

Introduction: Chronic illnesses are common and have detrimental effects not only on the affected individuals but also on their families. These negative consequences on the physical and psychological health of caregivers constitute the burden of care. We investigate the predictors of perceived burden of care among relatives of people with any chronic physical or mental illness using secondary data from a nationwide survey in Singapore. Materials and Methods: A cross-sectional household survey was conducted among adult residents of age 18 years and above and data were analysed to explore the predictors of high perceived burden of care. Two thousand four hundred and fifty-eight respondents having at least 1 close relative with any chronic physical and/or mental illness were included. Results: Majority of the respondents had at least 1 close family member with physical illness (88.3%)—the most common illnesses reported were memory problems (86.9%), physical disability (74.8%), heart problems (70.1%) and cancer (62.2%). About 30.9% (n = 723) perceived high burden resulting from their relatives’ health condition. Logistic analysis showed that women were more likely (OR 1.58, P = 0.0026) and Malays were less likely (OR 0.68, P = 0.0044) to perceive burden. Those who were able to open up to their family or friends (OR 1.65, P = 0.0162) and those who had dysthymia had higher odds (OR 4.91, respectively, P =0.0364) of perceiving burden. Conclusion: Our results suggest that regardless of the nature of the chronic illnesses, gender or ethnicity, the capacity to open up to family or friends and the mental health status of caregivers can predict their perceived burden. The results provide valuable preliminary information for planning social policies and interventions for improving the well-being of caregivers. Key words: Mental illness, Social support, Subjective burden

Regulatory T cells suppress sickness behaviour development without altering liver injury in cholestatic mice

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Cholestatic liver diseases are commonly accompanied by debilitating symptoms, collectively termed sickness behaviours. Regulatory T cells (T(regs)) can suppress inflammation; however, a role for T(regs) in modulating sickness behaviours has not been evaluated.

METHODS

A mouse model of cholestatic liver injury due to bile duct ligation (BDL) was used to study the role of T(regs) in sickness behaviour development.

RESULTS

BDL mice developed reproducible sickness behaviours, as assessed in a social investigation paradigm, characterized by decreased social investigative behaviour and increased immobility. Depletion of peripheral T(regs) in BDL mice worsened BDL-associated sickness behaviours, whereas infusion of T(regs) improved these behaviours; however, liver injury severity was not altered by T(reg) manipulation. Hepatic IL-6 mRNA and circulating IL-6 levels were elevated in BDL vs. control mice, and were elevated further in T(reg)-depleted BDL mice, but were decreased after infusion of T(regs) in BDL mice. IL-6 knock out (KO) BDL mice exhibited a marked reduction in sickness behaviours, compared to wildtype BDL mice. Furthermore, IL-6 KO BDL mice injected with rmIL-6 displayed sickness behaviours similar to wildtype BDL mice, whereas saline injection did not alter behaviour in IL-6 KO BDL mice. BDL was associated with increased hippocampal cerebral endothelial cell p-STAT3 expression, which was significantly reduced in IL-6 KO BDL mice.

CONCLUSIONS

T(regs) modulate sickness behaviour development in the setting of cholestatic liver injury, driven mainly through T(reg) inhibition of circulating monocyte and hepatic IL-6 production, and subsequent signalling via circulating IL-6 acting at the level of the cerebral endothelium.

Randomised clinical trial: rifaximin improves health-related quality of life in cirrhotic patients with hepatic encephalopathy - a double-blind placebo-controlled study

BACKGROUND

Hepatic encephalopathy (HE) is a brain disorder that often results from cirrhosis due to viral hepatitis, metabolic and alcohol-related liver disease, and is characterised by cognitive, psychiatric and motor impairments. Recurrent bouts of overt HE negatively impact daily functioning and quality of life.

AIM

To evaluate the effect of rifaximin on health-related quality of life (HRQL) in cirrhotic patients with HE.

METHODS

Patients with cirrhosis in remission from HE (Conn score = 0 or 1) and a documented history of recurrent HE episodes (≥2 within 6 months of screening) were randomised to rifaximin 550 mg twice daily (N = 101) or placebo (N = 118) for 6 months. Concomitant lactulose was permitted during the study. The Chronic Liver Disease Questionnaire (CLDQ) was administered every 4 weeks, and time for occurrence of HE breakthrough was recorded. A longitudinal analysis using time-weighted averages of the CLDQ scores normalised by days on study therapy was used to evaluate the effect of treatment on HRQL, and between HE outcomes (HE recurrence, yes/no) irrespective of treatment.

RESULTS

The time-weighted averages of the overall CLDQ score and each domain score were significantly higher in the rifaximin group vs. placebo (P-values ranged from 0.0087 to 0.0436); and were significantly lower in patients who experienced HE breakthrough compared to those who remained in remission (P-values were <0.0001).

CONCLUSION

Rifaximin significantly improved HRQL in patients with cirrhosis and recurrent hepatic encephalopathy. A lower HRQL may predict recurrence of hepatic encephalopathy.