Effects of chewing gum on short-term appetite regulation in moderately restrained eaters

Increased Waist Circumference after One-Year Is Associated with Poor Chewing Status

BACKGROUND

This study aimed to investigate the relationship between an increase in waist circumference (WC) after 1 year and self-reported chewing status in 10,870 Japanese adults who had received health checkups. Subsequently, 8068 participants were included in the final analysis.

METHODS

We defined an increase in WC ≥ 5 cm after 1 year as an unhealthy increase; in total, 613 (7.5%) respondents met this criterion. Chewing status was evaluated using a self-reported questionnaire at baseline; 1080 (13%) respondents were diagnosed with poor chewing status.

RESULTS

After adjusting for age, gender, WC, body mass index (BMI), and chewing status, an increase in WC ≥ 5 cm was found to be positively associated with gender (females: odds ratios [ORs]: 1.206; 95% confidence intervals [CIs]: 1.008-1.443), WC (ORs: 0.967; 95% CIs: 0.954-0.981), BMI (≥25 kg/m2; ORs: 2.194; 95% CIs: 1.715-2.808), and chewing status (poor; ORs: 1.356; 95% CIs: 1.084-1.697).

CONCLUSIONS

These findings suggest that increased WC after 1 year was associated with self-reported poor chewing status in Japanese adults.

Chewing Gum Is Associated with Better Diet Quality but Not Oral Health Measures in U.S. Adults

OBJECTIVE

Chewing gum (especially sugar-free gum) has been linked to improved oral health, however there is an absence of observational research using nationally-representative data in the United States. We sought to examine the factors associated with chewing gum and its relationship with the oral health status of U.S. adults.

METHODS

Cross-sectional data from the U.S. National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2013-2018 cycles were used in these analyses. Primary outcomes were the odds of having gum disease, treatment for gum disease, ever being told of bone loss around teeth, root caries, caries, and restoration. Unadjusted and multivariate logistic regression models were used to investigate the relationship of chewing gum use with demographic/lifestyle factors and the oral health status of participants.

RESULTS

2.40% (n = 365) of adults were users of chewing gum and the average among users was 5.20 ± 0.40 g/d. Users of chewing gum were more likely to be female, younger in age, and non-Hispanic Black or Hispanic. Self-reported chewing gum use did not affect the oral health status of U.S. adults (OR: 1.10, 95% CI: 0.42-2.88 for gum disease; OR: 1.34, 95% CI: 0.64-2.81 for treatment for gum disease; OR: 0.56, 95% CI: 0.27-1.17 for bone loss around teeth; OR: 1.01, 95% CI: 0.32-3.12 for root caries; OR: 0.96, 95% CI: 0.54-1.69 for caries), except for restoration (OR: 3.54, 95% CI: 1.78-7.06), but was associated with improved diet quality (OR: 1.86, 95% CI: 1.11-3.12 for a healthy eating index (HEI) of 51-59; OR: 1.96, 95% CI: 1.08-3.56 for HEI of 60-93); and decreased intakes of snacks (OR: 1.64, 1.01-2.69), and added sugars.

CONCLUSION

Future observational studies that more accurately capture chewing gum usage are needed, as these analyses have several limitations.

Application of Pistacia atlantica Pickering emulsion-filled chitosan gel for targeted delivery of curcumin

Emulsion-filled hydrogels are a growing system in the food industry for delivering bioactive compounds. In this study, Baneh gum (BG) particles were prepared as a Pickering emulsion stabilizer for curcumin delivery. Then, BG Pickering emulsion was added to the chitosan solution (1.5%, 2.0%, and 2.5% w/w) in different Pickering emulsion (PE):hydrogel (HYD) ratios (1:3, 1:5, and 1:7) to create an emulsion-filled gel. The highest amount of Cur stability after the 3rd week of storage was observed in the sample containing 2.0% CS and a 1:7 PE:HYD ratio (97.36%). Pickering emulsion and emulsion-filled gel significantly protected the antioxidant activity of curcumin against the thermal process (p < .05). Curcumin loading in the emulsion-filled gel provided better protection against the gastric condition compared to the emulsion system. The chitosan hydrogel swells in an acidic environment, but its combination with the anionic structure of the emulsion causes a lower release of curcumin in the stomach environment, which can help the stability of curcumin in the digestive system and have a controlled release in the gastrointestinal tract.

Functional sugar-free chewing gum infused with spices bolsters antioxidant capacity and phenolic content of saliva

Oral and vascular diseases are seemingly disparate conditions, yet individuals with poor oral health are at increased risk for cardiovascular events. Spice-derived bioactive polyphenols with antioxidant functionality may attenuate mechanisms linking the diseases, namely oxidative stress and inflammation. Acknowledging that novel approaches to increase antioxidant intake are warranted, the purpose of this study was to evaluate the influence of two functional sugar-free gums infused with spices on antioxidant capacity and phenolic content of saliva using the oxygen radical absorbance capacity and Folin-Ciocalteu assays, respectively. Unstimulated followed by stimulated saliva was collected according to a validated method across a prescribed five minute chewing period. Both gums significantly increased hydrophilic, lipophilic, and total antioxidant capacity of saliva (p < 0.05) yet to varying extents. Phenolic content of saliva was significantly higher (p < 0.001) post-chew for both gums. Results suggest spices infused into sugar-free chewing gum bolster the antioxidant capacity of saliva, thereby promoting oral health. Research evaluating the sublingual absorption of spice-derived antioxidants in functional gums and their influence on systemic oxidative stress is warranted.

The Efficacy of Gum Arabic in Managing Diseases: A Systematic Review of Evidence-Based Clinical Trials

Gum arabic (GA) is a natural product commonly used as a household remedy for treating various diseases in the Sub-Saharan Africa region. Despite its claimed benefits, there has been a lack of research on the findings of current clinical trials (CTs) that investigated its efficacy in the treatment of various medical diseases. The aim of this systematic review was to study CTs which focused on GA and its possible use in the management of various medical diseases. A search of the extant literature was performed in the PubMed, Scopus, and Cochrane databases to retrieve CTs focusing on evidence-based clinical indications. The databases were searched using the keywords ("Gum Arabic" OR "Acacia senegal" OR "Acacia seyal" OR "Gum Acacia" OR "Acacia Arabica") AND ("Clinical Trial" OR "Randomized Controlled Trial" OR "Randomized Clinical Trial"). While performing the systematic review, data were obtained on the following parameters: title, authors, date of publication, study design, study aim, sample size, type of intervention used, targeted medical diseases, and main findings. Twenty-nine papers were included in this systematic review. The results showed that ingestion of GA altered lipid profiles, renal profiles, plaque, gingival scores, biochemical parameters, blood pressure, inflammatory markers, and adiposity. GA exhibited anti-inflammatory, prebiotic, and antibacterial properties. GA has been successfully used to treat sickle cell anemia, rheumatoid arthritis, metabolic disorders, periodontitis, gastrointestinal conditions, and kidney diseases. Herein, we discuss GA with respect to the underlying mechanisms involved in each medical disease, thereby justifying GA's future role as a therapeutic agent.

Relationship between Chewing Status and Fatty Liver Diagnosed by Liver/Spleen Attenuation Ratio: A Cross-Sectional Study

This cross-sectional study investigated the relationship between chewing status and fatty liver among Japanese adults. Between April 2018 and March 2021, 450 individuals (352 males, 98 females; mean age 54.7 years) were recruited at the Asahi University Hospital Human Health Center. Chewing status was evaluated using a self-reported questionnaire. Liver/spleen (L/S) attenuation ratio < 0.9 on computed tomography was considered to indicate fatty liver, which was present in 69 participants (15%). Compared with participants without fatty liver, those with fatty liver had higher proportion of 25.0 (kg/m2) ≤ body mass index (BMI) (p < 0.001), higher serum hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) (p < 0.001), higher systolic blood pressure (p < 0.001), higher diastolic blood pressure (p < 0.001), and lower serum high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL cholesterol) (p = 0.011). Significant differences were also found in chewing status (p < 0.001) and eating speed (p = 0.011). Presence of fatty liver was positively associated with BMI (25.0 ≤; odds ratio [OR], 5.048; 95% confidence interval [CI], 2.550−9.992), serum HbA1c (OR, 1.937; 95% CI, 1.280−2.930), and chewing status (poor; OR, 8.912; 95% CI, 4.421−17.966) after adjusting for sex, age, BMI, serum HbA1c, systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure, serum HDL cholesterol, chewing status, and eating speed. Poor chewing status was positively associated with L/S attenuation ratio. These results indicate a positive relationship between poor chewing status and fatty liver diagnosed by L/S attenuation ratio in Japanese adults.

The significance and potential of functional food ingredients for control appetite and food intake

Dramatically rising global levels of obesity have raised consumers’ commercial and public health interest in foods that may help control appetite and weight. The satiety cascade consists of sensory, cognitive, physical, and hormonal events following food intake, preventing overeating, and the desire to eat for a long time. Functional foods can be one of the most influential factors in reducing appetite as long as effective ingredients, such as fiber and protein, are used to design these products. Also, functional foods should be designed to reduce appetite at different levels of oral processing, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine by various mechanisms. Therefore, the satiety power of functional foods depends on the type of ingredients and their amount. Because each compound has a different mechanism of action, it is recommended to use different compounds to influence satiety in functional foods.

Effects of stress on chewing and food intake in patients with anorexia nervosa

OBJECTIVE

The present study investigates the impact of psychosocial stress on chewing and eating behavior in patients with anorexia nervosa (P_AN ).

METHOD

The eating and chewing behavior of P_AN were examined in a standardized setting by means of a chewing sensor. These procedures encompassed n = 19 P_AN , age, and gender matched to n = 19 healthy controls (HC). Food intake and chewing frequency were assessed in two experimental conditions: rest versus stress (via Trier Social Stress Test). To verify stress induction, two appraisal scales were employed. In addition, chronic stress, psychological distress and eating disorder symptoms were assessed.

RESULTS

In terms of food intake and chewing frequency, the results of the 2x2 ANOVA demonstrated a significant effect of condition and group. During stress, all participants demonstrated a higher chewing frequency and a decreased ingestion. In general, patients ate less at a lower chewing frequency (vs. HC). However, sample specific analyses demonstrated that the eating and chewing behavior of P_AN remained unchanged regardless of the condition, except for their drinking. Food choices were comparable between the groups, but appetite values significantly differed.

DISCUSSION

The increase in chewing frequency in all participants during stress suggests that chewing might impact affect regulation, however, not specifically in P_AN . Future research should clarify to what extent the normalization of chewing behavior could ameliorate ED-symptoms (incl. food intake) in P_AN . The application of a chewing sensor could support this aim and future interventions.

Effects of gum chewing on glycaemic control in women with gestational diabetes mellitus: A randomized controlled trial. Impact of chewing on hyperglycaemia in women with GDM

BACKGROUND

The amount of chewing might be relevant in reducing hyperglycaemia in diabetic patients. The study assessed the impact of enhanced chewing on glycaemic control in women with gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM).

METHODS

As an open-label, mono-centre randomized controlled trial, 59 women with recent diagnosis of GDM were included. They received either routine care or additional chewing gum intervention. SMBG was performed for five days.

RESULTS

No significant impact on mean values of postprandial glucose levels were observed. The estimated mean differences (intervention vs. control group) were: 4.9 mg/dl, 98.4 %CI -7.2-17.1 (breakfast); -4.5 mg/dl, 98.4 %CI -15.1-6.0 (lunch); -3.8 mg/dl, 98.4 %CI -15.9 to 8.4 (dinner). OGTT levels at 60 and 120 min. were associated with glucose levels after breakfast.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, no significant differences in blood glucose levels were observed between the groups and therefore major effects of chewing on hyperglycaemia in women with GDM could be excluded.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

ClinicalTrials.gov; NCT03961542, Date of registration: 20.01.2019. Retrospectively registered.

Morning Mastication Enhances Postprandial Glucose Metabolism in Healthy Young Subjects

Postprandial glucose concentration is dependent on the time of day and its concentration in the morning is lower than in the evening. However, whether it is dependent on mastication at different times of the day has not been studied before. We hypothesized that mastication affects insulin-mediated glucose metabolism differently in the morning and evening in healthy individuals. Firstly, nine healthy male volunteers (22.0 ± 0.7 SEM years, body mass index 22.0 ± 1.0 kg/m²) performed a 75-g oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT). One week after the OGTT, they participated in a high-carbohydrate food (rice) consumption test with 10 or 40 chews per mouthful. Each experiment was conducted in the morning (0800 h) and evening (2000 h) on the same day. Blood samples were collected before and at 30-min intervals for 120 min after glucose or rice consumption. The incremental area under the curve (iAUC) for glucose in the OGTT was significantly lower in the morning than in the evening, whereas the iAUC for insulin was similar at both times. In participants who chewed 40 times, the iAUC for glucose after rice consumption was significantly lower in the morning than in the evening but was similar at both times in individuals who chewed 10 times. Chewing 40 times in the morning (but not the evening) significantly increased insulin secretion at 30 min. This suggests that morning mastication improves early-phase insulin secretion after rice consumption. This novel finding may aid in reducing the incidence of obesity and type 2 diabetes mellitus.

Chewing Stimulation Reduces Appetite Ratings and Attentional Bias toward Visual Food Stimuli in Healthy-Weight Individuals

Based on the theory of incentive sensitization, the exposure to food stimuli sensitizes the brain’s reward circuits and enhances attentional bias toward food. Therefore, reducing attentional bias to food could possibly be beneficial in preventing impulsive eating. The importance of chewing has been increasingly implicated as one of the methods for reducing appetite, however, no studies to investigate the effect of chewing on attentional bias to food. In this study, we investigated whether chewing stimulation (i.e., chewing tasteless gum) reduces attentional bias to food as well as an actual feeding (i.e., ingesting a standardized meal) does. We measured reaction time, gaze direction and gaze duration to assess attentional bias toward food images in pairs of food and non-food images that were presented in a visual probe task (Experiment 1, n = 21) and/or eye-tracking task (Experiment 2, n = 20). We also measured appetite ratings using visual analog scale. In addition, we conducted a control study in which the same number of participants performed the identical tasks to Experiments 1 and 2, but the participants did not perform sham feeding with gum-chewing/actual feeding between tasks and they took a rest. Two-way ANOVA revealed that after actual feeding, subjective ratings of hunger, preoccupation with food, and desire to eat significantly decreased, whereas fullness significantly increased. Sham feeding showed the same trends, but to a lesser degree. Results of the visual probe task in Experiment 1 showed that both sham feeding and actual feeding reduced reaction time bias significantly. Eye-tracking data showed that both sham and actual feeding resulted in significant reduction in gaze direction bias, indexing initial attentional orientation. Gaze duration bias was unaffected. In both control experiments, one-way ANOVAs showed no significant differences between immediately before and after the resting state for any of the appetite ratings, reaction time bias, gaze direction bias, or gaze duration bias. In conclusion, chewing stimulation reduced subjective appetite and attentional bias to food, particularly initial attentional orientation to food. These findings suggest that chewing stimulation, even without taste, odor, or ingestion, may affect reward circuits and help prevent impulsive eating.

Chewing gum decreases energy intake at lunch following a controlled breakfast

The impact of chewing gum on fasting appetite or meal intake has not been studied. We tested the hypothesis that chewing gum would decrease lunch intake after a controlled breakfast, and reduce hunger in fasting and fed states. Seventeen males and sixteen females (21.4 ± 6.3y, BMI 23.8 ± 2.7 kg/m²) participated in a randomized crossover study in which subjects chewed sugar-free gum a total of 1 h on the test day (GC), and did not chew gum on a control day (NG). The 1 h of gum chewing included 20 min while fasting, and two 20-min sessions between breakfast and lunch. Subjects rated their appetite and mood on visual analog scales. After completing the fasting measures, subjects consumed a breakfast shake containing 30% of their measured resting energy expenditure. Three hours later they consumed an ad libitum lunch with water. Fasting ratings of hunger were lower in GC than NG (t = 2.66, p = 0.01). Subjects consumed significantly less pasta (41 g, 68 kcals, t = 2.32, p = 0.03) during GC than NG. In conclusion, gum chewing decreased fasting hunger ratings and lunch energy consumed. Chewing gum may be a useful tool impacting energy balance in this population. Longer studies, especially in other populations, will be required.

The effect of gum chewing on blood GLP-1 concentration in fasted, healthy, non-obese men

We evaluated the effect of chewing on blood GLP-1 concentration by having volunteers to chew sugarless gum. Our intention was to explore the neural mechanisms regulating the secretion of glucagon-like peptide-1(GLP-1). After fasting for 12 h, 12 healthy male, non-obese volunteers (18 < BMI < 30), were asked to chew sugarless gum at a frequency of 80 times every 2 min for a total of 30 min. Blood samples were collected before the start of chewing and 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, and 30 min after the start of chewing. Satiety and hunger were evaluated on a scale from 0 to 100 at each time point. Compared with the control group, the test group's satiety was increased at 15, 25, and 30 min (p = 0.043, p = 0.014 and p = 0.018, respectively) after they began chewing sugarless gum 80 times every 2 min. The blood GLP-1 level of the test group at 30 min was 49.6 ± 20.3 pmol/l, significantly higher than that of the control group (38.9 ± 20.9 pmol/l; p = 0.031). There was no significant difference in the test group's GLP-1 concentration at each time point. In the control group, compared to baseline, the GLP-1 concentrations at 15, 25, and 30 min were significantly decreased (p = 0.042, p = 0.0214 and p = 0.012, respectively). No significant differences in the blood concentration of glucose, insulin and GIP or hunger were observed between groups. Our study suggests that fasting sugarless gum chewing can increase satiety and reduce the decrease in GLP-1 concentration.

Food at checkouts in non-food stores: a cross-sectional study of a large indoor shopping mall

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the display of food at non-food store checkouts; and to classify foods by type and nutrient content, presence of price promotions and whether food was at child height.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional survey of checkout displays at non-food stores. Foods were classified as 'less healthy' or healthier using the UK Food Standards Agency's Nutrient Profile Model. Written price promotions were recorded. Child height was defined as the sight line of an 11-year-old approximated from UK growth charts.

SETTING

A large indoor shopping mall, Gateshead, UK, February-March 2014.

SUBJECTS

Two hundred and five out of 219 non-food stores in the shopping mall directory which were open for trading.

RESULTS

Thirty-two (15·6%) of 205 non-food stores displayed food at the checkout. All displayed less healthy foods, and fourteen (43·8%) had healthier foods. Overall, 5911 checkout foods were identified. Of these, 4763 (80·6%) were 'less healthy'. No fruits, vegetables, nuts or seeds were found. Of 4763 less healthy foods displayed, 195 (4·1%) were subject to price promotions, compared with twelve of 1148 (1·0%) healthier foods (χ 2(df=1)=25·4, P<0·0001). There was no difference in the proportion of less healthy (95·1%) and healthier (96·2%) foods displayed at child height.

CONCLUSIONS

Almost one-sixth of non-food stores displayed checkout food, the majority of which was 'less healthy' and displayed at child height. Less healthy food was more likely to be subject to a written price promotion than healthier food. Further research into the drivers and consequences of checkout food in non-food stores is needed. Public health regulation may be warranted.

Quantification and qualification of bacteria trapped in chewed gum

Chewing of gum contributes to the maintenance of oral health. Many oral diseases, including caries and periodontal disease, are caused by bacteria. However, it is unknown whether chewing of gum can remove bacteria from the oral cavity. Here, we hypothesize that chewing of gum can trap bacteria and remove them from the oral cavity. To test this hypothesis, we developed two methods to quantify numbers of bacteria trapped in chewed gum. In the first method, known numbers of bacteria were finger-chewed into gum and chewed gums were molded to standard dimensions, sonicated and plated to determine numbers of colony-forming-units incorporated, yielding calibration curves of colony-forming-units retrieved versus finger-chewed in. In a second method, calibration curves were created by finger-chewing known numbers of bacteria into gum and subsequently dissolving the gum in a mixture of chloroform and tris-ethylenediaminetetraacetic-acid (TE)-buffer. The TE-buffer was analyzed using quantitative Polymerase-Chain-Reaction (qPCR), yielding calibration curves of total numbers of bacteria versus finger-chewed in. Next, five volunteers were requested to chew gum up to 10 min after which numbers of colony-forming-units and total numbers of bacteria trapped in chewed gum were determined using the above methods. The qPCR method, involving both dead and live bacteria yielded higher numbers of retrieved bacteria than plating, involving only viable bacteria. Numbers of trapped bacteria were maximal during initial chewing after which a slow decrease over time up to 10 min was observed. Around 10(8) bacteria were detected per gum piece depending on the method and gum considered. The number of species trapped in chewed gum increased with chewing time. Trapped bacteria were clearly visualized in chewed gum using scanning-electron-microscopy. Summarizing, using novel methods to quantify and qualify oral bacteria trapped in chewed gum, the hypothesis is confirmed that chewing of gum can trap and remove bacteria from the oral cavity.

Candy consumption patterns, effects on health, and behavioral strategies to promote moderation: summary report of a roundtable discussion

Nearly all Americans (97%) report eating candy at least once per year; yet, on a given day, only approximately one-fourth of the US population aged ≥2 y consumes candy. Among all Americans, candy contributes a relatively small proportion of calories, added sugars, and saturated fat to the total diet, and recent research suggests that current levels of candy consumption are not associated with risk of weight gain and cardiovascular disease in children and adults. Providing guidance for the consumption of candy in moderation requires an understanding of various behavioral health-related factors that influence candy consumption. A roundtable of behavioral nutrition experts, researchers, and nutrition educators met to discuss recent data on intakes of candy, health outcomes associated with usual candy intake, and the impact of behavioral strategies, including restriction, education, and environmental awareness, on modifying eating behaviors to achieve moderate intakes of candy. Restricting access to palatable foods, whether self-imposed or by parental control, may have potentially negative consequences. Techniques and insight into how to adopt "moderation" in candy consumption, from effective parental practices to environmental strategies that facilitate behavior change without a high degree of effort, were identified as important next steps toward sustainable dietary guidance related to the role of candy and other treats in a healthy lifestyle.

Sensory-specific appetite is affected by actively smelled food odors and remains stable over time in normal-weight women

Understanding overconsumption starts with knowledge of how separate factors influence our eating behavior. Food cues such as food odors are known for their effect on general appetite and sensory-specific appetite (SSA). Active sniffing rather than passive exposure may induce satiation over time. The objective of this study was to investigate how actively sniffing banana odors affects general appetite, SSA, and subsequent food intake. In a crossover study, 61 women actively smelled cups containing natural banana, artificial banana odor, or water (no odor) for 10 min. Treatment order was randomly assigned as much as possible. General appetite and SSA were monitored by using 100-mm visual analog scales during the 10 min of active sniffing, followed by ad libitum intake of banana milkshake. Results showed that SSA was consistently high (+12 mm) during actively sniffing natural or artificial banana odors, with no decrease in SSA over time. Sniffing both banana odors increased the appetite for banana (+11 mm) and other sweet products (+4 mm), whereas the appetite for savory products decreased by 7 mm (all P < 0.01) compared with no odor. Actively sniffing banana odor did not significantly influence food intake (P = 0.68) or general appetite scores (P = 0.06). In conclusion, SSA scores during active sniffing were identical to the SSA found in a similar study that used passive smelling, suggesting that SSA is independent of the manner of sniffing and exposure time. Moreover, sweet/savory categorization may suggest that food odors communicate information about the nutrient composition of their associated foods. These data clearly show the appetizing effects of food odors.

Chewing gum intake in Europe: a survey of intakes in France, Germany, Italy, Spain and the UK

A limited number of studies have examined chewing gum intakes in Europe. In the current study, chewing gum intakes were estimated in children, adolescents and adults via customised online questionnaires developed to collect data on patterns of chewing gum consumption (including usage, duration and gum variety) in September and October 2011. A total sample of chewing gum consumers composed of 1001 children and 5186 adolescents and adults from five European countries was included in the survey, with 79% and 66% of children and adolescents/adults reporting chewing gum in the previous 3 and 6 months, respectively. The intake of chewing gum on a per g basis was estimated by establishing the mean weights of each form of gum, and using factors for the frequency of chewing gum intake obtained through the online survey. Intakes of chewing gum at the mean, 90th and 95th percentile in children were 1.87, 3.79 and 6.59 g day(-1) (equivalent to 0.75, 1.67 and 2.40 pieces/day), respectively. In adolescents and adults, intakes at the mean, 90th and 95th percentile were 1.87, 5.40 and 8.00 g day(-1) (equivalent to 0.98, 3.00 and 4.00 pieces/day), respectively. Intakes were similar across the five countries. Chewing gum use was significantly higher in older compared with younger children and was significantly higher in adolescents compared with older adults. The data reported herein provide a reliable resource for chewing gum intakes in Europe and will be important for estimating exposure to food additives and flavourings intended for use in chewing gum.

Oral processing effort, appetite and acute energy intake in lean and obese adults

Chewing reportedly contributes to satiation and satiety signals. Attempts to document and quantify this have led to small and inconsistent effects. The present trial manipulated oral processing effort though required chewing of gums of different hardness and measured appetitive sensations, energy intake, gastric emptying, GI transit time, and concentrations of glucose, insulin, GLP-1, ghrelin and pancreatic polypeptide. Sixty adults classified by sex and BMI (15 each of lean females, obese females, lean males and obese males) were tested in a randomized, controlled, cross-over trial with three arms. They chewed nothing, soft gum or hard gum for 15 min while sipping grape juice (10% of individual energy needs) containing acetaminophen and lactulose on one day each separated by 7 days. Electromyographic recordings and self-reports were obtained during and after chewing to quantify oral processing effort. Blood was sampled through an indwelling catheter and appetite ratings were obtained at baseline and at 0, 15, 30, 45, 60, 90, 120, 180 and 240 min after chewing initiation. Breath samples were collected at 10 min intervals for the first 2h and at 30 min intervals for the next 2h. No effects of chewing were observed for appetitive sensations or gut peptide concentrations. Energy intake tended to decline in lean and increase in obese participants so that daily energy intake differed significantly between the two groups when chewing either gum, while no difference was observed on the non-chewing day. Serum glucose and insulin were significantly lower at selected time points 90-240 min after chewing compared to baseline and the non-chewing day. These data indicate chewing effort does not affect appetitive sensations or gut peptide secretion, but may exert a small differential effect on acute energy intake in lean and obese individuals and lead to greater post-prandial declines of serum glucose and insulin. The efficacy of gum chewing as a substitute for eating for weight management remains uncertain.

ILSI Brazil International Workshop on Functional Foods: a narrative review of the scientific evidence in the area of carbohydrates, microbiome, and health

To stimulate discussion around the topic of ‘carbohydrates’ and health, the Brazilian branch of the International Life Sciences Institute held the 11th International Functional Foods Workshop (1–2 December 2011) in which consolidated knowledge and recent scientific advances specific to the relationship between carbohydrates and health were presented. As part of this meeting, several key points related to dietary fiber, glycemic response, fructose, and impacts on satiety, cognition, mood, and gut microbiota were realized: 1) there is a need for global harmonization of a science-based fiber definition; 2) low-glycemic index foods can be used to modulate the postprandial glycemic response and may affect diabetes and cardiovascular outcomes; 3) carbohydrate type may influence satiety and satiation; glycemic load and glycemic index show links to memory, mood, and concentration; 4) validated biomarkers are needed to demonstrate the known prebiotic effect of carbohydrates; 5) negative effects of fructose are not evident when human data are systematically reviewed; 6) new research indicates that diet strongly influences the microbiome; and 7) there is mounting evidence that the intestinal microbiota has the ability to impact the gut–brain axis. Overall, there is much promise for development of functional foods that impact the microbiome and other factors relevant to health, including glycemic response (glycemic index/glycemic load), satiety, mood, cognition, and weight management.