Is counter-regulation among restrained eaters a result of motivated overeating?

Eating restraint is associated with reduced attentional capture by signals of valuable food reward

Previous paradigms used to examine attentional distraction by task-irrelevant food words and food images were not suited for the investigation of involuntary and automatic attentional capture. In the current experiments we adapted a well-established visual-search paradigm (with eye tracking) to investigate involuntary attentional capture by food and drink rewards. We first used a satiety procedure to manipulate relative preference for different food and drink outcomes (potato chips and water in Experiment 1 and popcorn and chocolate Smarties in Experiment 2). Participants then performed the visual-search task where a coloured distractor signalled on each trial which of the two food and drink rewards was available for successful identification of the target. The signalled reward was cancelled, however, if any eye gaze was registered on the distractor. Participants were therefore motivated to try and control the automatic orienting of attention towards cues signalling valuable outcomes, in order to earn those outcomes. In both experiments we found that attention was more often captured by the distractor signalling the valuable (non-sated) outcome, replicating previous studies using this paradigm with monetary rewards. We also found that those scoring high on eating restraint (as measured with the Dutch Eating Behavior Questionnaire) were better at controlling reflexive orienting of attention to desirable food rewards. This paradigm offers a novel approach for understanding how reflexive attention and control relate to conflicts in everyday life around distracting food cues, and the moderating role of dietary restraint.

Modeling of food intake among restrained and unrestrained eaters

The Theory of Normal Eating suggests that how much others eat sets an upper limit for how much it is appropriate to eat. This study tested the hypothesis that restrained eaters, who typically eat less than they want to, would be more responsive to a high-intake norm than would unrestrained eaters. Data were combined from 8 experimental studies (total N = 735 female participants; 305 restrained eaters, 430 unrestrained eaters). Each study: (a) included a low-intake norm, a high-intake norm, and a no-norm control condition; (b) measured participants' food intake; and (c) included the Restraint Scale as a measure of dietary restraint. There were no differences between restrained unrestrained eaters in the no-norm control condition or in the magnitude of the inhibition effect (i.e., the difference between the low-intake norm condition and the control condition). There was, however, a restraint difference in the magnitude of the augmentation effect (i.e., the difference between the high-intake norm condition and the control condition). Restrained eaters showed a larger augmentation effect (d = 0.58; 95% CI = 0.29, 0.87) than did unrestrained eaters (d = 0.20; 95% CI = -0.05, 0.45). Social norms provide an upper limit for acceptable food intake, with high-intake norms permitting (but not requiring) individuals to indulge themselves. The fact that restrained eaters were more responsive to the high-intake norm than were unrestrained eaters suggests that the high-intake norm gives restrained eaters permission to indulge when they typically eat less than they want to.

Effects of anti-obesity messages on women's body image and eating behaviour

OBJECTIVES

It has been suggested that obesity stigmatization contributes to negative mental health outcomes, particularly among overweight individuals. This study examined the effects of exposure to media-portrayed anti-obesity messages on women's state self-esteem, body esteem, and food intake. It was hypothesized that exposure to anti-obesity messages would result in decreased state self-esteem and body esteem and in increased food intake, and that these effects would be more pronounced in individuals with either higher BMI or stronger perceived pressure to be thin.

METHOD

Participants were randomly assigned to one of three experimental conditions in which they either: read a fictitious media article containing either anti-obesity messages or non-obesity-related health messages, or completed a neutral control task (word search). State self-esteem and body esteem were measured before and after the manipulation. Participants also completed a candy taste rating task and ad lib consumption was surreptitiously measured.

RESULTS

There was no main effect of condition on either psychological outcome variable or on grams consumed. Higher perceived sociocultural pressure to be thin was associated with a decrease in body esteem after reading the anti-obesity article only. Having a higher BMI was associated with greater candy intake in the word search condition. This trend was also apparent in the sun exposure condition, but not in the anti-obesity condition.

DISCUSSION

Exposure to anti-obesity messages appears to decrease weight-related body esteem in women who already feel strong pressure to be thin, and may lead heavier women to suppress their food intake.