Preference of dairy cows: Indoor cubicle housing with access to a total mixed ration vs. access to pasture

Impact of dietary regime on the metabolomic profile of bovine buttermilk and whole milk powder

INTRODUCTION

Bovine milk contains a rich matrix of nutrients such as carbohydrates, fat, protein and various vitamins and minerals, the composition of which is altered by factors including dietary regime.

OBJECTIVES

The objective of this research was to investigate the impact of dietary regime on the metabolite composition of bovine whole milk powder and buttermilk.

METHODS

Bovine whole milk powder and buttermilk samples were obtained from spring-calving cows, consuming one of three diets. Group 1 grazed outdoors on perennial ryegrass which was supplemented with 5% concentrates; group 2 were maintained indoors and consumed a total mixed ration diet; and group 3 consumed a partial mixed ration diet consisting of perennial ryegrass during the day and total mixed ration maintained indoors at night.

RESULTS

Metabolomic analysis of the whole milk powder (N = 27) and buttermilk (N = 29) samples was preformed using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry, with 504 and 134 metabolites identified in the samples respectively. In whole milk powder samples, a total of 174 metabolites from various compound classes were significantly different across dietary regimes (FDR adjusted p-value ≤ 0.05), including triglycerides, of which 66% had their highest levels in pasture-fed samples. Triglycerides with highest levels in pasture-fed samples were predominantly polyunsaturated with high total carbon number. Regarding buttermilk samples, metabolites significantly different across dietary regimes included phospholipids, sphingomyelins and an acylcarnitine.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion the results reveal a significant impact of a pasture-fed dietary regime on the metabolite composition of bovine dairy products, with a particular impact on lipid compound classes.

Production, Composition and Nutritional Properties of Organic Milk: A Critical Review

Milk is one of the most valuable products in the food industry with most milk production throughout the world being carried out using conventional management, which includes intensive and traditional systems. The intensive use of fertilizers, antibiotics, pesticides and concerns regarding animal health and the environment have given increasing importance to organic dairy and dairy products in the last two decades. This review aims to compare the production, nutritional, and compositional properties of milk produced by conventional and organic dairy management systems. We also shed light on the health benefits of milk and the worldwide scenario of the organic dairy production system. Most reports suggest milk has beneficial health effects with very few, if any, adverse effects reported. Organic milk is reported to confer additional benefits due to its lower omega-6-omega-3 ratio, which is due to the difference in feeding practices, with organic cows predominantly pasture fed. Despite the testified animal, host, and environmental benefits, organic milk production is difficult in several regions due to the cost-intensive process and geographical conditions. Finally, we offer perspectives for a better future and highlight knowledge gaps in the organic dairy management system.

Free-choice pasture access for dry cows: Effects on health, behavior, and milk production

Allowing dairy cattle to access pasture or outdoor areas is known to be beneficial for cows' welfare and is considered important by the general public. However, in confinement-based operations with high-yielding cows, pasture access may be difficult to implement, especially for lactating animals. Providing pasture access to heifers and dry cows seems a more feasible option for most farms. The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of providing high-yielding dairy cows with free-choice pasture access during the dry period on their health, behavior, and milk production. Over the study period, a total of 78 Holstein cows were assigned to 1 of 2 treatments during the dry period (51 ± 8 d): housing with free-choice access to the pasture (PAST) or housing continuously without any access to the outdoors (CTRL). After calving, all cows from both treatments were mixed and housed continuously. To assess the effects of the treatment on cows' performance, all animals enrolled were monitored both before calving and during the first 100 d in milk of the following lactation. The behavior of all cows involved was monitored continuously during the whole observation period using collar-based sensors. All cows were inspected monthly to assess lameness, hock lesions, cleanliness, and body condition score. During the period after calving (0-100 d in milk), milk production and composition were also monitored. Results showed that free-choice pasture access affected cows' feeding behavior. Before calving, the animals in PAST spent more time feeding than in CTRL and, interestingly, this difference tended to persist for several weeks after calving. During the dry period, cows in PAST were cleaner than in CTRL but no differences in locomotion and body condition score were found between the 2 groups. Free-choice pasture access during the dry period also affected milk production during the following lactation. The cows that spent the dry period in PAST produced more milk than CTRL counterparts, particularly for the animals that calved during summer. In the current study we have found that providing free-choice pasture access during the dry period can positively affect the performance of dairy cattle and represents a desirable practice in confinement-based dairy production systems.

Outdoor access practices in the Canadian dairy industry

Dairy cows are highly motivated to access pasture and have a partial preference for alternative forms of outdoor access (e.g., deep-bedded outdoor sand or wood-chip packs). In addition, Canadians value the provision of outdoor access to dairy cows as they perceive it as important for good cow welfare. In contrast to Europe, Oceania, and the United States, little data exist on the use of outdoor access on Canadian dairy farms. Therefore, our objective was to assess current outdoor access practices for dairy cows in Canada. An online questionnaire was used to determine housing and outdoor access practices for lactating cows, dry cows, pregnant heifers, and weaned, nonpregnant heifers on Canadian dairy farms. The questionnaire was distributed by the 10 provincial milk boards between November 2020 and August 2021, resulting in an 8.9% response rate (n = 903 completed questionnaires). In total, 75% (n = 675) of respondents provided some form of outdoor access to at least 1 cattle class on their farm. Pasture was the most frequently used form of outdoor access for all cattle classes. Based on a weighted average, a total of 29% and 48% of Canadian dairy farms provided lactating and dry cows, respectively, access to pasture; for youngstock, these numbers were 48% and 27% for pregnant heifers and weaned, nonpregnant heifers, respectively. Herd size (for each cow class), indoor housing system, and region were all associated with the provision of pasture. Farms with larger lactating herds less often provided access to pasture; larger herd sizes in terms of weaned, nonpregnant heifers, pregnant heifers, and dry cows were also associated with a lower likelihood of access to pasture. Farms using indoor bedded pack housing for their lactating cows more often provided pasture to this cattle class than farms with freestall or tiestall housing; this likelihood did not differ between farms with tie or freestall housing for this cattle class. Dry cows or pregnant heifers housed in a tiestall were more often provided pasture than freestall-housed dry cows or pregnant heifers. Housing type for weaned, nonpregnant heifers was not associated with the likelihood of pasture provision. Farms in British Columbia or on Canada's East Coast (i.e., Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island) more often provided lactating cows pasture compared with farms in other regions. For the other 3 cattle classes, farms on the East Coast of Canada more often provided pasture than farms in other parts of Canada. These results will inform future decisions regarding outdoor access for Canadian dairy cattle and may also aid in identifying future areas of research. For example, our results may aid in designing housing systems that facilitate outdoor access in larger herds and in areas that are subject to more extreme weather conditions.

Impact of varying levels of pasture allowance on the nutritional quality and functionality of milk throughout lactation

The objective of this study was to examine the impact of increasing proportions of grazed pasture in the diet on the composition, quality, and functionality of bovine milk across a full lactation. Fifty-four spring-calving cows were randomly assigned to 1 of 3 groups (n = 18), blocked on the basis of mean calving date (February 15, 2020 ± 0.8 d), pre-experimental daily milk yield (24.70 ± 3.70 kg), milk solids yield (2.30 ± 0.27 kg), lactation number (3.10 ± 0.13), and economic breeding index (182 ± 19). Raw milk samples were obtained weekly from each group between March and November 2020. Group 1 (GRS) consumed perennial ryegrass and was supplemented with 5% concentrates (dry matter basis); group 2 was maintained indoors and consumed a total mixed ration (TMR) diet consisting of maize silage, grass silage, and concentrates; and group 3 consumed a partial mixed ration diet (PMR), rotating between perennial ryegrass during the day and indoor TMR feeding at night. Raw milk samples consisted of a pooled morning and evening milking and were analyzed for gross composition, free amino acids, fatty acid composition, heat coagulation time, color, fat globule size, and pH. The TMR milks had a significantly higher total solids, lactose, protein, and whey protein as a proportion of protein content compared with both GRS and PMR milks. The GRS milks demonstrated a significantly lower somatic cell count (SCC), but a significantly higher pH and b*-value than both TMR and PMR milks. The PMR milks exhibited significantly lower total solids and fat content, but also demonstrated significantly higher SCC and total free amino acid content compared with GRS and TMR. Partial least squares discriminant analysis of fatty acid profiles displayed a distinct separation between GRS and TMR samples, while PMR displayed an overlap between both GRS and TMR groupings. Variable importance in projection analysis identified conjugated linoleic acid cis-9,trans-11, C18:2n-6 cis, C18:3n-3, C11:0, and C18:2n-6 trans as the largest contributors to the variation between the diets. Milk fats derived from GRS diets exhibited the highest proportion of unsaturated fats and higher unsaturation, health-promoting, and desaturase indices. The lowest proportions of saturated fats and the lowest atherogenic index were also exhibited by GRS-derived milk fats. This work highlights the positive influence of grass-fed milk for human consumption through its more nutritionally beneficial fatty acid profile, despite the highest milk solid percentages derived from TMR feeding systems. Furthermore, this study demonstrates the proportional response of previously highlighted biomarkers of pasture feeding to the proportion of pasture in the cow's diet.

Comparison between the Behavior of Low-Yield Holstein-Friesian and Brown Swiss Cows under Barn and Pasture Feeding Conditions

Cow pasturing poses many logistical and nutritional problems. Animals have more difficulty accessing pasture feed and require more time to consume the equivalent amount of dry matter compared to total mixed ration (TMR) feed from a feed table. The study was conducted during August 2016-October 2017 on 64 Holstein-Friesian (HF) cows and 54 Brown Swiss (BS) cows. All animals were equipped with CowManager sensor devices, and the cows' behaviors were recorded: time spent on feed intake, rumination, physical activity, and rest. In winter, cows were mainly fed hay, while in summer, they took forage from the pasture or freshly cut forage provided in the barn. The study showed that the time of day had a significant (p < 0.001) effect on the cows' feeding behaviors. The study also showed behavioral differences between HF and BS breeds. HF cows, regardless of the location and type of feed provided, spent more time on feed intake and chewed less compared to the BS breed. These differences were observable in all studied lactation groups. Animals were most willing to take forage two hours before sunrise and two hours before sunset and showed an increased willingness to take feed immediately after leaving the milking parlor.

Welfare of dairy cows

This Scientific Opinion addresses a European Commission's mandate on the welfare of dairy cows as part of the Farm to Fork strategy. It includes three assessments carried out based on literature reviews and complemented by expert opinion. Assessment 1 describes the most prevalent housing systems for dairy cows in Europe: tie-stalls, cubicle housing, open-bedded systems and systems with access to an outdoor area. Per each system, the scientific opinion describes the distribution in the EU and assesses the main strengths, weaknesses and hazards potentially reducing the welfare of dairy cows. Assessment 2 addresses five welfare consequences as requested in the mandate: locomotory disorders (including lameness), mastitis, restriction of movement and resting problems, inability to perform comfort behaviour and metabolic disorders. Per each welfare consequence, a set of animal-based measures is suggested, a detailed analysis of the prevalence in different housing systems is provided, and subsequently, a comparison of the housing systems is given. Common and specific system-related hazards as well as management-related hazards and respective preventive measures are investigated. Assessment 3 includes an analysis of farm characteristics (e.g. milk yield, herd size) that could be used to classify the level of on-farm welfare. From the available scientific literature, it was not possible to derive relevant associations between available farm data and cow welfare. Therefore, an approach based on expert knowledge elicitation (EKE) was developed. The EKE resulted in the identification of five farm characteristics (more than one cow per cubicle at maximum stocking density, limited space for cows, inappropriate cubicle size, high on-farm mortality and farms with less than 2 months access to pasture). If one or more of these farm characteristics are present, it is recommended to conduct an assessment of cow welfare on the farm in question using animal-based measures for specified welfare consequences.

Organic Milk Production and Dairy Farming Constraints and Prospects under the Laws of the European Union

In recent years, there has been rapid development in organic farming. When choosing organic livestock products, consumers are guided by the conviction that animals are provided with the highest welfare standards and access to pasture. The purpose of this article was to trace the principles of organic farming prevailing in the EU with regard to milk production and cattle breeding. The principles of organic production are universal and their application is not limited to certified farms. Organic certification is intended to assure the consumer of the quality and method of production. Due to additional requirements imposed by law, organic cows are usually kept in better welfare conditions compared to conventional cattle, but this is not the rule. The altered taste and texture of organic milk and its products compared to conventional products mainly depends on the presence of pasture greens in the cows' diet. Therefore, milk from conventionally kept, pasture-grazed cows may have similar characteristics and composition. Organic farms tend to have lower milk yields compared to conventional farms due to the lower consumption of concentrate feed. In the future, it is expected that the proportion of land that is unsuitable for the production of crops for human consumption will increasingly be used for cow grazing.

Contrasting Fecal Methanogenic and Bacterial Profiles of Organic Dairy Cows Located in Northwest Washington Receiving Either a Mixed Diet of Pasture and TMR or Solely TMR

Currently, little is known regarding fecal microbial populations and their associations with methanogenic archaea in pasture-based dairy cattle. In this study, we assessed the fecal microbiome of organic dairy cows across different time points receiving a mixed diet of pasture and total mixed ration (TMR) or TMR only. We hypothesized that the fecal methanogenic community, as well as co-occurrence patterns with bacteria, change across diets. To test these hypotheses, we analyzed TMR and pasture samples, as well as the V3-V4 region of 16S rRNA of fecal samples collected over the course of a one-year study period from 209 cows located on an organic dairy in Northwest Washington. The inherent variability in pasture quality, quantity, availability, and animal preference can lead to diverse dietary intakes. Therefore, we conducted a k-means clustering analysis to identify samples from cows that were associated with either a pasture-based diet or a solely TMR diet. A total of 4 clusters were identified. Clusters 1 and 3 were mainly associated with samples primarily collected from cows with access to pasture of varying quality and TMR, cluster 2 was formed by samples from cows receiving only TMR, and cluster 4 was a mix of samples from cows receiving high-quality pasture and TMR or TMR only. Interestingly, we found little difference in the relative abundance of methanogens between the community clusters. There was evidence of differences in diversity between pasture associated bacterial communities and those associated with TMR. Cluster 4 had higher diversity and a less robust co-occurrence network based on Spearman correlations than communities representing TMR only or lower-quality pasture samples. These findings indicate that varied bacterial communities are correlated with the metabolic characteristics of different diets. The overall good pasture and TMR quality in this study, combined with the organic allowance for feeding high levels of TMR even during the grazing season, might have contributed to the lack of differences in the fecal archaeal community from samples associated with a mixed pasture and TMR diet, and a TMR only diet. Mitigation strategies to decrease methane emissions such as increasing concentrate to forage ratio, decreasing pasture maturity and adopting grazing systems targeting high quality pasture have been shown to be efficient for pasture-based systems. However, the allowance for organic dairy producers to provide up to an average of 70% of a ruminant's dry matter demand from dry matter fed (e.g., TMR), suggests that reducing enteric methane emissions may require the development of novel dietary strategies independent of pasture management.

Alternative Practices in Organic Dairy Production and Effects on Animal Behavior, Health, and Welfare

The number of organic dairy farms has increased because of the increased growth of the organic market, higher organic milk price, and because some consumers prefer to purchase products from less intensive production systems. Best management practices are expected from organic dairy farms to ensure animal health and milk production. Organic dairy producers typically transition from conventional systems to avoid chemicals and pesticides, enhance economic viability, improve the environment, and increase soil fertility. Organic dairy producers respect and promote a natural environment for their animals, is also an important component of animal welfare. Organic producers have few options to mitigate pain in dairy calves. In the United States, therapies to mitigate pain for disbudded organic dairy calves are regulated by the US National Organic Program. Organic producers regularly use naturally derived alternatives for the treatment of health disorders of dairy calves, heifers, and cows. Alternative natural products may provide an option to mitigate pain in organic dairy calves. Despite the reluctance to implement pain alleviation methods, some organic farmers have expressed interest in or currently implement plant-based alternatives. Efficacy studies of alternative remedies for organic livestock are needed to verify that their use improves animal welfare. Non-effective practices represent a major challenge for organic dairy animal welfare. The relationship between humans and animals may be jeopardized during milking because first-lactation cows may exhibit adverse behaviors during the milking process, such as kicking and stomping. The periparturient period is particularly challenging for first-lactation cows. Adverse behaviors may jeopardize animal welfare and reduce safety for humans because stressed heifers may kick off the milking unit, kick at milkers, and display other unwanted behaviors in the milking parlor. This may reduce milking efficiency, overall production, and ultimately reduce the profitability of the dairy farm. Positive animal welfare is a challenging balancing act between the three overlapping ethic concerns. Identifying animal welfare deficits in organic livestock production is the first step in capitalizing on these opportunities to improve welfare.

Performance of Various Filtering Media for the Treatment of Cow Manure from Exercise Pens—A Laboratory Study

During summer and winter months, pastures and outdoor pens represent the conventional means of providing exercise for dairy cows housed in tie-stall barns in the province of Québec, Canada. Unfortunately, outdoor pens require large spaces, and their leachates do not meet Québec’s environmental regulations. Therefore, there is a need to develop alternative approaches for these so-called wintering pens. A sustainable year-long approach could be a stand-off pad consisting of a filtering media to manage adequately water exiting the pad. Different filtering materials can be used and mixed (gravel, woodchips, biochar, sphagnum peat moss, sand, etc.). To find the best material and/or mixes, a laboratory study was carried out using 15 PVC pipes (5 cm in diameter and 50 cm long) to test five different combinations of materials over a 3-week period. Different contaminant-removal efficiencies were achieved with the alternative materials, including for chemical oxygen demand (11–38%), phosphates (8–23%), suspended solids (33–57%), and turbidity (23–58%). Alternative treatments with sand, sphagnum peat moss, and biochar improved the filtration capacity when compared to the conventional material (woodchips). However, after three weeks of experimentation, the treatment efficiency of sand gradually decreased for pollutants such as suspended solids and phosphates.

The Effect of Sustainable Feeding Systems, Combining Total Mixed Rations and Pasture, on Milk Fatty Acid Composition and Antioxidant Capacity in Jersey Dairy Cows

This study was carried out to assess the effect of using pasture combined with total mixed ration (TMR) on milk production and composition, fatty acid (FA) profiles, fat-soluble antioxidant content, and total milk antioxidant capacity (TAC). In addition, the effect of milk pasteurization and storage at 2 °C for 4 days, lipophilic antioxidants and TAC were assessed. Two homogeneous groups of Jersey cows (n = 8) were constituted, which were randomly assigned to one of the two treatments: TMR (without access to pasture), or partial mixed diet (pTMR: grazing 8 h/day + TMR indoors). To establish FA profiles and lipophilic antioxidants’ changes in milk during the grazing period, in case of the pTMR group the experimental period was spilt in three grazing periods: P1 (May), P2 (June), and P3 (June/July). Milk yielded from cows having limited access on pasture (pTMR diet) showed an improved FA profile, with higher concentrations of FAs considered benefic for human health (vaccenic acid (VA), conjugated linoleic acid (CLA), omega-3 FA (n-3 FA)) (p < 0.01) and a lower concentration of FAs with hypercholesterolemiant potential (C12:0, C14:0, and C16:0) (p < 0.05), compared to that of the TMR diet. This change in FA profile was correlated with improved sanogenous lipid indices of milk fat (n-6/n-3 FA atherogenic index and thrombogenic index). Milk yielded during the P1 grazing period had higher concentrations of VA, CLA, and n-3 FA (p < 0.05) and lower concentrations of C14:0 and C16:0 (p < 0.01); it exhibited the best values for the main sanogenous fat lipid indices of fat. Moreover, pTMR milk showed a higher α-tocopherol, retinol, and β-carotene content (p < 0.05), positively correlated with TAC values in milk (P1 ˃ P2 ˃ P3). By comparison, cows fed using the TMR diet yielded a higher quantity of milk (p < 0.05), but a lower fat and protein content (p < 0.01), and also a higher saturated FAs and n-6 FA content (p < 0.05) together with a lower concentration of lipophilic antioxidants in milk. Thermal treatment showed no effect on α-tocopherol and retinol content in milk, but their concentrations decreased during the storage, at the same time a TAC decrease. The results of this study prove the positive effect of using pasture combined with TMR on FA profiles, milk antioxidant content, and antioxidant capacity, with beneficial effects on nutrition and health in humans.

Preweaning dairy calves' preferences for outdoor access

Adult dairy cattle show a preference for outdoor spaces during summer nights, but little is known about such preferences for dairy calves. Our aim was to determine the preferences of dairy calves for outdoor access during their first 11 wk of age in summer conditions. Calves were paired (n = 10) at 7 d of age and placed in one of 10 pens (7.32 × 2.44 m, deep bedded with bark mulch), each with equally sized outdoor and indoor areas. All feed was provided indoors; calves had ad libitum access to water, hay and concentrate. During the preweaning period, from 5 to 29 d of age, calves were offered 12 L/d of milk divided into 2 feedings. Calves were weaned stepwise, with milk gradually reduced by 1 L/d from d 30 to 35 of age. Calves were fed 6 L/d from 35 to 51 d of age, then milk was again reduced by 1 L/d so that calves were completely weaned by 56 d of age. Calves remained in the trial until, on average (± SD), 72 ± 2 d of age. Pens were continuously video recorded, and behaviors were scored 3 d/wk using 5-min scan samples. Four observers scored whether calves were inside, outside, lying, standing, in the sun or shade (interobserver reliability = 0.97). Sun and shade could not always be detected, so a proportion was calculated as the amount of time in the sun or shade divided by the total time sun or shade was visible. Calves spent approximately one-third of their time outside throughout the experiment, and time spent outside was affected by several factors. Pairs of calves spent less time outside as the amount of rain increased. During the first 6 wk of age, time spent outside increased, but time spent outside decreased between wk 6 and 7, and remained around 200 min/d from wk 7 to 11. Calves with the highest average daily gain and calves that were approximately 50% white appeared to spend more time outdoors. When outside, calves spent similar amounts of time in the sun and shade during the first 8 wk, but after weaning they appeared to spend more time in the shade. When calves were outside they appeared to spend a greater proportion of their time standing than when they were indoors during the first 4 wk. These results indicate that, when given the option in the summer, calves make use of an outdoor space, but this appears to vary with weather, calf age, average daily gain, and coat color.

Spatial and temporal variation in proximity networks of commercial dairy cattle in Great Britain

The nature of contacts between hosts can be important in facilitating or impeding the spread of pathogens within a population. Networks constructed from contacts between hosts allow examination of how individual variation might influence the spread of infections. Studying the contact networks of livestock species managed under different conditions can additionally provide insight into their influence on these contact structures. We collected high-resolution proximity and GPS location data from nine groups of domestic cattle (mean group size = 85) in seven dairy herds employing a range of grazing and housing regimes. Networks were constructed from cattle contacts (defined by proximity) aggregated by different temporal windows (2 h, 24 h, and approximately 1 week) and by location within the farm. Networks of contacts aggregated over the whole study were highly saturated but dividing contacts by space and time revealed substantial variation in cattle interactions. Cows showed statistically significant variation in the frequency of their contacts and in the number of cows with which they were in contact. When cows were in buildings, compared to being on pasture, contact durations were longer and cows contacted more other cows. A small number of cows showed evidence of consistent relationships but the majority of cattle did not. In one group where management allowed free access to all farm areas, cows showed asynchronous space use and, while at pasture, contacted fewer other cows and showed substantially greater between-individual variation in contacts than other groups. We highlight the degree to which variations in management (e.g. grazing access, milking routine) substantially alter cattle contact patterns, with potentially major implications for infection transmission and social interactions. In particular, where individual cows have free choice of their environment, the resulting contact networks may have a less-risky structure that could reduce the likelihood of direct transmission of infections.

Perspectives of Western Canadian dairy farmers on providing outdoor access for dairy cows

Dairy cows are highly motivated to access pasture, especially at night in summer. When pasture is not available, dairy cows show a partial preference for alternative types of outdoor access, spending half the night outside in summer on an outdoor sand or wood chip pack. However, many dairy farms do not provide cows outside access. To better understand reasons why dairy farmers choose to provide or not provide outdoor access, we studied the perspectives of dairy farmers located in the 4 Western Canadian provinces: British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba. Data were collected via (1) 11 focus group discussions with a total of 50 Western Canadian dairy farmers, and (2) semi-structured individual interviews with 6 dairy farmers of Hutterite colonies. Transcripts were analyzed using template analysis. Reasons to not provide outdoor access fell into 5 main themes: (1) adverse climate conditions, (2) negative implications of outdoor access for cow welfare including concerns about udder health, (3) concerns regarding decreases in profitability, (4) farm infrastructure not set up for outdoor access, and (5) higher ability to manage animals kept indoors. Reasons to provide outdoor access fell into the 5 main themes: (1) local climate conditions conducive for outdoor access, (2) beneficial effects of outdoor access on cow welfare including lower lameness prevalence, (3) increased profitability due to a premium milk price provided to farmers that allow pasture access to their cows, (4) farm infrastructure that is set up for outdoor access, and (5) easier management of animals outdoors. We conclude that the decision to provide outdoor access depends on how farmers weigh these factors given the constraints on their farm, as well as their personal beliefs and values.

Graduate Student Literature Review: The effect of housing systems on movement opportunity of dairy cows and the implications on cow health and comfort

Intensification within the dairy industry has led to an increase in use of more restrictive indoor housing systems (most commonly tiestalls and freestalls) and less use of the pasture-based housing systems used in past generations. These indoor housing systems are associated with not only a higher level of restriction to cow movement, but also with a higher prevalence of lameness and cow comfort issues on farm, which negatively affects cow welfare, public perceptions, and producer profitability. In looking for solutions to these issues, several studies have investigated different housing and management options that are less restrictive and increase cow movement opportunity. We hypothesized that movement opportunity, briefly summarized as the level of locomotor activity a cow is able to express in her given environment as well as the ease with which said movement can be expressed, can have a direct, substantial effect on cow comfort as well as cow leg and hoof health. Lying behaviors, which serve as common indicators of cow comfort, are affected not only by the ease of movement that comes with providing more movement opportunity within the lying environment, but also by the aforementioned improvements to leg health. This is particularly true regarding the ability to display different lying postures and to rise and lie down with ease. The complexity of the relationship between the different methods by which movement opportunity can be provided to dairy cows and the corresponding effects on outcome measures related to cow health and comfort is an area of research that warrants exploration. In this literature review, we sought to identify how level of movement opportunity, provided though different housing systems and management practices, affects cow hoof and leg, udder, and reproductive health, as well as the effects that it has on cow lying behaviors that are indicative of comfort.

The Impact of Seasonality in Pasture-Based Production Systems on Milk Composition and Functionality

Seasonal calving, pasture-based dairy systems are widely practiced in countries with a temperate climate and plentiful rainfall such as Ireland and New Zealand. This approach maximizes milk production from pasture and, consequently, is a low-cost, low-input dairy production system. On the other hand, the majority of global milk supply is derived from high input indoor total mixed ration systems where seasonal calving is not practiced due to the dependence on ensiled silages, grains and concentrated feeds, which are available year-round. Synchronous changes in the macro and micronutrients in milk are much more noticeable as lactation progresses through early, mid and late stages in seasonal systems compared to non-seasonal systems-which can have implications on the processability and functionality of milk.

Invited review: Lying time and the welfare of dairy cows

Adequate time lying down is often considered an important aspect of dairy cow welfare. We examine what is known about cows' motivation to lie down and the consequences for health and other indicators of biological function when this behavior is thwarted. We review the environmental and animal-based factors that affect lying time in the context of animal welfare. Our objective is to review the research into the time that dairy cows spend lying down and to critically examine the evidence for the link with animal welfare. Cows can be highly motivated to lie down. They show rebound lying behavior after periods of forced standing and will sacrifice other activities, such as feeding, to lie down for an adequate amount of time. They will work, by pushing levers or weighted gates, to lie down and show possible indicators of frustration when lying behavior is thwarted. Some evidence suggests that risk of lameness is increased in environments that provide unfavorable conditions for cows to lie down and where cows are forced to stand. Lameness itself can result in longer lying times, whereas mastitis reduces it. Cow-based factors such as reproductive status, age, and milk production influence lying time, but the welfare implications of these differences are unknown. Lower lying times are reported in pasture-based systems, dry lots, and bedded packs (9 h/d) compared with tiestalls and freestalls (10 to 12 h/d) in cross-farm research. Unfavorable conditions, including too few lying stalls for the number of cows, hard or wet lying surfaces, inadequate bedding, stalls that are too small or poorly designed, heat, and rain all reduce lying time. Time constraints, such as feeding or milking, can influence lying time. However, more information is needed about the implications of mediating factors such as the effect of the standing surface (concrete, pasture, or other surfaces) and cow behavior while standing (e.g., being restrained, walking, grazing) to understand the effect of low lying times on animal welfare. Many factors contribute to the difficulty of finding a valid threshold for daily lying time to use in the assessment of animal welfare. Although higher lying times often correspond with cow comfort, and lower lying times are seen in unfavorable conditions, exceptions occur, namely when cows lie down for longer because of disease or when they spend more time standing because of estrus or parturition, or to engage in other behaviors. In conclusion, lying behavior is important to dairy cattle, but caution and a full understanding of the context and the character of the animals in question is needed before drawing firm conclusions about animal welfare from measures of lying time.

Organic Dairy Cattle: Do European Union Regulations Promote Animal Welfare?

Animal welfare is an emerging concept in EU law; with the advent of specific regulations intending to protect animals. The approach taken by European lawmakers is to provide "minimum standards" for conventional farming; argued by some as failing to adequately protect animals. In contrast, the EU organic farming regulations aim to "establish a sustainable management system for agriculture" and promote "high animal welfare standards". The first aim of this review was to identify key areas where there are clear improvements in quality of life for dairy cattle housed under the EU organic regulations when compared to the conventional EU regulations. Using the available scientific evidence, our second aim was to identify areas where the organic regulations fail to provide clear guidance in their pursuit to promote high standards of dairy cattle welfare. The greater emphasis placed on natural living conditions, the ban of some (but unfortunately not all) physical mutilations combined with clearer recommendations regarding housing conditions potentially position the organic dairy industry to achieve high standards of welfare. However, improvements in some sections are needed given that the regulations are often conveyed using vague language, provide exceptions or remain silent on some aspects. This review provides a critical reflection of some of these key areas related to on-farm aspects. To a lesser extent, post farm gate aspects are also discussed.

The Influence of Different Types of Outdoor Access on Dairy Cattle Behavior

Pasture access for dairy cows is highly valued both by cows and the public at large. When pasture access is not feasible, farmers can provide cows with alternative forms of outdoor access, such as an outdoor bedded pack, that may be easier to implement on some farms. We reviewed the literature on how lying, standing, walking, feeding, social, and estrus behaviors are influenced by pasture and other types of outdoor areas. Pasture allows the expression of grazing and can facilitate the expression of lying, standing, walking, and estrus behaviors. In addition, pasture can decrease the number of negative social interactions between cows, likely because more space per cow is provided than what is normally available indoors. The provision of soft flooring and an open space in outdoor bedded packs appears to provide some benefits for lying, standing, and walking behavior and may also have positive effects on social behavior, especially with larger space allowances. The effects of an outdoor bedded pack on estrus behavior are less well-documented, but the provision of a standing surface that provides better footing than typically available indoors may promote estrus behavior. Alternative outdoor areas assessed to date appear to be less attractive for cows than pasture, perhaps because these areas do not provide the opportunity to graze. We encourage future research to investigate the importance of grazing for dairy cows. The motivation of dairy cows to access alternative outdoor areas should also be investigated. As cow preference for the outdoors depends on many factors, providing cows a choice may be of particular importance.

Can technology help achieve sustainable intensification? Evidence from milk recording on Irish dairy farms

This article explores the potential of a farm technology to simultaneously improve farm efficiency and provide wider environmental and social benefits. Identifying these 'win-win-win' strategies and encouraging their widespread adoption is critical to achieve sustainable intensification. Using a nationally representative sample of 296 Irish dairy farms from 2015, propensity score matching is applied to measure the impact of milk recording on a broad set of farm sustainability indicators. The findings reveal that the technology enhances economic sustainability by increasing dairy gross margin and milk yield per cow. Furthermore, social sustainability is improved through a reduction in milk bulk tank somatic cell count (an indicator of animal health and welfare status). Conversely, milk recording (as it is currently implemented) does not impact farm environmental sustainability, represented by greenhouse gas emission efficiency. While the study shows that milk recording is a 'win-win' strategy, ways of improving current levels of utilisation are discussed so that milk recording achieves its 'win-win-win' potential in the future.

Assessing whether dairy cow welfare is "better" in pasture-based than in confinement-based management systems

Consumers perceive pasture-based systems of milk production as natural and therefore better for cow welfare than confinement systems. However both systems are heterogeneous and continually evolving, varying from total confinement to total pasture with many hybrid intermediaries. To compare the welfare of dairy cows in these various systems, we use the three spheres framework, comprising biological functioning, natural behaviour and affective states. Considering biological functioning, pasture-based cows are less at risk of subclinical and clinical mastitis, claw lesions, lameness, metritis, early embryonic mortality, culling and mortality, but at more risk of internal parasitism, malnutrition and delayed onset of oestrous activity postpartum than confined cows. Regarding natural behaviours, pasture-based cows exhibit less agonistic behaviour, better lying behaviour, more normal oestrous behaviours and better synchronicity of behaviours than confined cows. They also have the opportunity to graze, which is one of the main features of the behavioural repertoire of dairy cows, but, they may also experience long periods away from pasture in larger herds, and severe climatic stresses which will become increasingly important as the climate changes. Our current ability to assess the affective state of dairy cows is poor. For example, hunger is an important subjective state that cannot be measured directly. The growing focus on ensuring that animals have lives worth living, means that dairy cows should garner some positive emotions from their lives, and it seems clear that pasture access is essential for this. Clearly measurement of affective state is an important challenge for future dairy cow welfare research. At the extremes of management systems, there can be major differences in animal welfare but in hybrid systems, dairy cows experience elements of both confinement and pasture which may ameliorate the negative effects of each on cow welfare. Ultimately, the optimal system gives cows an element of choice between both environments. Moreover management of the system, whether it is confinement or pastured-based, may be as important as the system of management in ensuring good dairy cow welfare and addressing societal concerns.Abbreviations: BCS: Body condition score; TMR: Total mixed ration.

Pasture Access Affects Behavioral Indicators of Wellbeing in Dairy Cows

Simple Summary

Dairy cows in Europe and the United States are increasingly housed indoors year-round. Even cows with pasture access are usually kept inside during the winter and around calving. However, animal welfare scientists and dairy consumers are concerned that full-time housing impacts cattle welfare. We investigated how pasture influences behavioral indicators of wellbeing. Using cow pedometers, we recorded 29 animals’ lying and walking activity during 18 days of pasture access and 18 days of indoor housing. Cattle at pasture had fewer lying bouts but longer lying times, indicating they were more comfortable and less restless. Lying behavior was also more synchronous outdoors, with most of the herd lying at the same time. These results indicate pasture provides a comfortable surface and reduces competition for lying space. Furthermore, cows at pasture walked farther, with potential benefits for their physical health and psychological wellbeing. Our findings contribute to the growing body of evidence that pasture access improves dairy cow welfare. As a society, we must decide whether full-time housing is a price worth paying for dairy products.

Abstract

Dairy cows are increasingly housed indoors, either year-round or for long stretches over the winter and around parturition. This may create health and welfare issues. In cattle, lying and walking are highly motivated, and herds synchronize lying behavior when they have comfortable surfaces and little competition for space. Lying and walking activity can, therefore, indicate good welfare. Using a repeated measures crossover design, we gave 29 Holstein–Friesian dairy cows 18 days of overnight pasture access (PAS treatment) and 18 days of indoor housing (PEN treatment). Accelerometers recorded their lying and locomotory behavior. We measured behavioral synchrony with Fleiss’ Kappa and analyzed the accelerometry data using linear mixed models. Compared to the PEN treatment, the PAS treatment had longer overnight lying durations (χ²₁ = 27.51, p < 0.001), fewer lying bouts (χ²₁ = 22.53, p < 0.001), longer lying bouts (χ²₁ = 25.53, p < 0.001), and fewer transitions up or down (χ²₁ = 16.83, p < 0.001). Herd lying behavior was also more synchronous at pasture (χ²₁ = 230.25, p < 0.001). In addition, nightly step counts were higher in the PAS treatment than the PEN treatment (χ²₁ = 2946.31, p < 0.001). These results suggest pasture access improves dairy cow welfare by increasing comfort, reducing competition and boredom, and facilitating motivated behavior.

Effects of Grazing on the Behaviour, Oxidative and Immune Status, and Production of Organic Dairy Cows

Simple Summary

In European organic dairy farms, the use of grazing appears to be a controversial topic. The laws that regulate the sector do not indicate in an incontrovertible way the obligation to provide grazing; accordingly, organic farmers sometimes allow dairy cows access to only an open air fenced area rather than to a grazing pasture. This work confirms the validity and benefits of grazing, compared to access to an outdoor space, in terms of the behaviour and milk production of dairy cows.

Abstract

This study compared the effects of a short daily grazing time with those of permanent free-stall housing on the behaviour, oxidative status, immune response, and milk production of organically reared cows. During a 63-day period, two homogeneous groups of eight lactating Brown cows were allocated to either housing (H) in a free-stall building for 24 h/day. Feeding was based on a total mixed ration or grazing (G) on barley grass for 5 h/day, and housing in a free-stall structure with feeding was based on the same total mixed ration offered to the H group. With regard to behaviour, H cows spent more time idling, walking, drinking, and self-grooming, whereas G cows showed a greater intent to eat and interact socially. Moreover, G cows exhibited slightly higher reactive oxygen metabolites and similar biological antioxidant potential concentrations than the H group, which indicates that short grazing resulted in an almost negligible increase in oxidative stress and an unchanged antioxidant capacity. Skin tests, performed by injecting phytohemoagglutinin intradermally, indicated that G cows had thicker skin than H cows at the end of the trial, an index of a better cell-mediated immune response. Grazing did not affect milk yield but improved milk quality in terms of an increase in fat and a reduction in urea content, somatic cell count, and total microbial count. Milk from G cows was richer in saturated fatty acids, likely because of the contribution of palmitic acid present in the grazed barley grass, and also showed higher contents of some healthy fatty acids, such as rumenic acid and α-linolenic acid, and a lower omega-6/omega-3 ratio. These results show that including a short grazing time in the diets of organic dairy cows does not have negative consequences for milk production and contributes to improved milk quality as well as to a more efficient immune response in the cows.

Aspects of lameness in pasture based dairy systems

Pasture-based dairy systems are implemented all over the world. Access to pasture is perceived to be advantageous for animal welfare in western societies. However, the benefits of grazing on lameness are not uniformly verifiable. This is related to the challenges that grazing cows face which are different from zero-grazing systems to some extent, but may nevertheless be deleterious. The distribution of lesion types comparing housed and pastured cattle differs between studies. This may be caused by differences in how strongly certain risk factors apply in these studies. Major risk factors for lameness in grazing cattle are related to the risk of trauma, for example from long walking distances and lack of track maintenance, and cow factors such as the adaptability of certain breeds to the grazing lifestyle. The consequences of lameness are similar to zero-grazing cattle and negatively affect animal welfare and productivity.

A systematic review of non-productivity-related animal-based indicators of heat stress resilience in dairy cattle

INTRODUCTION

Projected temperature rise in the upcoming years due to climate change has increased interest in studying the effects of heat stress in dairy cows. Environmental indices are commonly used for detecting heat stress, but have been used mainly in studies focused on the productivity-related effects of heat stress. The welfare approach involves identifying physiological and behavioural measurements so as to start heat stress mitigation protocols before the appearance of impending severe health or production issues. Therefore, there is growing interest in studying the effects of heat stress on welfare. This systematic review seeks to summarise the animal-based responses to heat stress (physiological and behavioural, excluding productivity) that have been used in scientific literature.

METHODS

Using systematic review guidelines set by PRISMA, research articles were identified, screened and summarised based on inclusion criteria for physiology and behaviour, excluding productivity, for animal-based resilience indicators. 129 published articles were reviewed to determine which animal-based indicators for heat stress were most frequently used in dairy cows.

RESULTS

The articles considered report at least 212 different animal-based indicators that can be aggregated into body temperature, feeding, physiological response, resting, drinking, grazing and pasture-related behaviour, reactions to heat management and others. The most common physiological animal-based indicators are rectal temperature, respiration rate and dry matter intake, while the most common behavioural indicators are time spent lying, standing and feeding.

CONCLUSION

Although body temperature and respiration rate are the animal-based indicators most frequently used to assess heat stress in dairy cattle, when choosing an animal-based indicator for detecting heat stress using scientific literature to establish thresholds, characteristics that influence the scale of the response and the definition of heat stress must be taken into account, e.g. breed, lactation stage, milk yield, system type, climate region, bedding type, diet and cooling management strategies.

Impact of Daily Grazing Time on Dairy Cow Welfare-Results of the Welfare Quality® Protocol

Grazing provides livestock better opportunities to act out their species-specific behavior compared to restrictive stable conditions. The aim of the present study was to examine the effects of daily grazing time on welfare of dairy cows in organic and conventional farms based on the Welfare Quality^® assessment protocol for dairy cattle (WQ^®). Therefore, we applied the WQ^® on 32 dairy farms (classified in 3 groups: Group 0, minor/zero grazing, n = 14; Group 1, medium grazing, n = 10; Group 2, high grazing, n = 8). We assessed the status of animal welfare once in winter and once in summer. For statistical analyses we used mixed models for repeated measures, with group, season, and their interaction as fixed factors. At the WQ^® criteria level, five out of nine examined criteria improved in farms with grazing between winter and summer. In contrast, the welfare situation in minor/zero grazing farms remained largely unchanged. At the level of WQ^® measures, only the individual parameters "% of cows with hairless patches" and "% of lame cows" were affected positively by high grazing. Grazing offers a potential to enhance welfare of dairy cows during the summer season, while beneficial effects are not guaranteed when management does not satisfy the animals´ needs.

Dairy cow preference for different types of outdoor access

Dairy cows display a partial preference for being outside, but little is known about what aspects of the outdoor environment are important to cows. The primary aim of this study was to test the preference of lactating dairy cattle for pasture versus an outdoor sand pack during the night. A secondary aim was to determine whether feeding and perching behavior changed when cows were provided outdoor access. A third objective was to investigate how the lying behavior of cows changed when given access to different outdoor areas. Ninety-six lactating pregnant cows were assigned to 8 groups of 12 animals each. After a baseline phase of 2 d in which cows were kept inside the freestall barn, cows were habituated to the outdoor areas by providing them access to each of the 2 options for 24 h. Cows were then given access, in random order by group, to either the pasture (pasture phase) or the sand pack (sand phase). As we tested the 2 outdoor options using space allowances consistent with what would be practical on commercial dairy farms, the space provided on pasture was larger (21,000 m²) than that provided on the sand pack (144 m²). Cows were tested at night (for 2 nights in each condition), from 2000 h until morning milking at approximately 0800 h, as preference to be outdoors is strongest at this time. During the next 3 nights cows were given access to both outside options simultaneously (choice phase). Feeding and perching behaviors were recorded when cows were indoors during the day and night periods. Lying behavior was automatically recorded by HOBO data loggers (Onset, Bourne, MA). Cows spent more time outside in the pasture phase (90.0 ± 5.9%) compared with the sand phase (44.4 ± 6.3%). When provided simultaneous access to both options, cows spent more time on pasture than on the sand pack (90.5 ± 2.6% vs. 0.8 ± 0.5%, respectively). Time spent feeding indoors during the day did not change regardless of what type of outdoor access was provided, but there was a decline in perching during the day when cows were provided access to either outdoor option at night. Lying time in the pasture phase was lower than in the baseline or sand phase. During the nighttime, lying time outside was not different between the sand (55.4 ± 7.9%) and pasture (52.0 ± 7.4%) phases. In summary, cows spent a considerable amount of time outside during the night when given the opportunity and showed a preference for a large pasture versus a small sand pack as an outdoor area.

Effect of pasture versus indoor feeding systems on raw milk composition and quality over an entire lactation

The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of different feeding systems on milk quality and composition. Fifty-four multiparous and primiparous Friesian lactating cows were divided into 3 groups (n=18) to study the effects of 3 feeding systems over a full lactation. Group 1 was housed indoors and offered a total mixed ration diet (TMR), group 2 was maintained outdoors on a perennial ryegrass pasture (referred to as grass), and group 3 was also grazed outdoors on a perennial ryegrass/white clover pasture (referred to as clover). Bulk milk samples were collected from each group at morning and afternoon milkings once weekly from March 11 to October 28 in 2015. Milk from pasture-fed cows (grass and clover) had significantly higher concentrations of fat, protein, true protein, and casein. The pasture feeding systems induced significantly higher concentrations of saturated fatty acids C11:0, C13:0, C15:0, C17:0, C23:0, and unsaturated fatty acids C18:2n-6 trans, C18:3n-3, C20:1, and C20:4n-6 and a greater than 2-fold increase in the conjugated linoleic acid C18:2 cis-9,trans-11 content of milk compared with that of the TMR feeding system. The TMR feeding system resulted in milks with increased concentrations of C16:0, C18:2n-6 cis, C18:3n-6 cis, C22:0 C22:1n-9, and C18:2 cis-10,trans-12. Principal component analysis of average fatty acid profiles showed clear separation of milks from the grazed pasture-based diets to that of a TMR system throughout lactation, offering further insight into the ability to verify pasture-derived milk by fatty acid profiling.

Review: welfare of dairy cows in continuously housed and pasture-based production systems

There is increasing interest in the use of continuous housing systems for dairy cows, with various reasons put forward to advocate such systems. However, the welfare of dairy cows is typically perceived to be better within pasture-based systems, although such judgements are often not scientifically based. The aim of this review was to interrogate the existing scientific literature to compare the welfare, including health, of dairy cows in continuously housed and pasture-based systems. Although summarising existing work, knowledge gaps and directions for future research are also identified. The scope of the review is broad, examining relevant topics under three main headings; health, behaviour and physiology. Regarding health, cows on pasture-based systems had lower levels of lameness, hoof pathologies, hock lesions, mastitis, uterine disease and mortality compared with cows on continuously housed systems. Pasture access also had benefits for dairy cow behaviour, in terms of grazing, improved lying/resting times and lower levels of aggression. Moreover, when given the choice between pasture and indoor housing, cows showed an overall preference for pasture, particularly at night. However, the review highlighted the need for a deeper understanding of cow preference and behaviour. Potential areas for concern within pasture-based systems included physiological indicators of more severe negative energy balance, and in some situations, the potential for compromised welfare with exposure to unpredictable weather conditions. In summary, the results from this review highlight that there remain considerable animal welfare benefits from incorporating pasture access into dairy production systems.

Role of oxytocin in improving the welfare of farm animals - A review

Recently, increasing attention has been paid to the welfare of farm animals, which have been evaluated using behavioral and physiological measures. However, so far, the measures have almost always been used to estimate poor welfare. In this review, firstly we focus on how oxytocin (OT) relates to positive social behavior, pleasure, and stress tolerance, and second on which management factors stimulate OT release. OT induces maternal and affiliative behaviors and has an anti-stress effect. Further, OT is produced during enjoyable events, and has positive feedback on its own release as well. Therefore, to some extent, the relationship of OT to positive normal behavior was mutually beneficial—heightened OT concentration owing to comfortable rearing conditions induces positive social behavior, which in turn may increase OT concentration. Hence, studies on animal welfare should pay more attention to increasing comfort and the stress tolerance, rather than only focusing on when stress occurs in farm animals.

Preference and behavior of lactating dairy cows given free access to pasture at two herbage masses and two distances

A number of factors influence dairy cow preference to be indoors or at pasture. The study reported here investigated whether herbage mass and distance affects preference and if continuously housed cows exhibited behavioral and production differences compared to cows that had free access to pasture. Dairy cows (n = 16) were offered a free choice of being in cubicle housing (1.5 cubicles/cow) or at pasture with a high (3,000 ± 200 kg DM/ha) vs. low (1,800 ± 200 kg DM/ha) herbage mass. A control group (n = 16) was confined to cubicle housing for the duration of the study. Each herbage mass was offered at either a near (38 m) or far (254 m) distance in a 2 × 2 factorial crossover design to determine motivation to access pasture. Overall, dairy cows expressed a partial preference to be at pasture, spending 68.7% of their time at pasture. This was not affected (P > 0.05) by herbage mass. Both grass intake (P = 0.001) and grazing time (P = 0.039) was greater when cows were offered the high herbage mass. Neither total mixed ration intake (P > 0.05) nor milk yield (P > 0.05) was affected by herbage mass or distance. Additionally, no interaction existed between herbage mass and distance (P > 0.05). Distance affected preference: overall time on pasture was greater at the near distance (P = 0.002); however, nighttime use was not affected by distance (P = 0.184). Housed cows produced less milk than free-choice cows and this was potentially due to a combination of decreased lying time in housed cows (P < 0.001) and grass intake (1.22 kg/d) in free-choice cows. This study shows that herbage mass is not a major factor driving dairy cow preference for pasture, but distance does affect preference for pasture during the day. Additionally, there are clear production and welfare benefits for providing cows with a choice to be at pasture or cubicle housing over being continuously housed. Further research is necessary to quantify the effect of lying time on milk yields.

Societal views and animal welfare science: understanding why the modified cage may fail and other stories

The innovations developed by scientists working on animal welfare are often not adopted in practice. In this paper, we argue that one important reason for this failure is that the solutions proposed do not adequately address the societal concerns that motivated the original research. Some solutions also fail because they do not adequately address perceived constraints within the industry. Using examples from our own recent work, we show how research methods from the social sciences can address both of these limitations. For example, those who persist in tail-docking cattle (despite an abundance of evidence showing that the practice has no benefits) often justify their position by citing concern for cow cleanliness. This result informs the nature of new extension efforts directed at farmers that continue to tail dock, suggesting that these efforts will be more effective if they focus on providing producers with methods (of proven efficacy) for keeping cows clean. Work on pain mitigation for dehorning shows that some participants reluctant to provide pain relief believe that the pain from this procedure is short lasting and has little impact on the calf. This result informs the direction of new biological research efforts to understand both the magnitude and duration of any suffering that result from this type of procedure. These, and other examples, illustrate how social science methodologies can document the shared and divergent values of different stakeholders (to ensure that proposed solutions align with mainstream values), beliefs regarding the available evidence (to help target new scientific research that meets the perceived gaps), and barriers in implementing changes (to ease adoption of ideas by addressing these barriers).