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Holzner A, Mohd Rameli NIA, Ruppert N, Widdig A. Agricultural habitat use affects infant survivorship in an endangered macaque species. Curr Biol 2024; 34:410-416.e4. [PMID: 38194972 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2023.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2023] [Revised: 11/02/2023] [Accepted: 12/04/2023] [Indexed: 01/11/2024]
Abstract
Infant survival is a major determinant of individual fitness and constitutes a crucial factor in shaping species' ability to maintain viable populations in changing environments.1 Early adverse conditions, such as maternal loss, social isolation, and ecological hazards, have been associated with reduced rates of infant survivorship in wild primates.2,3,4 Agricultural landscapes increasingly replacing natural forest habitats may additionally threaten the survival of infants through exposure to novel predators,5 human-wildlife conflicts,6,7 or the use of harmful chemicals.8,9 Here, we investigated potential links between agricultural habitat use and high infant mortality in wild southern pig-tailed macaques (Macaca nemestrina) inhabiting a mosaic landscape of rainforest and oil palm plantation in Peninsular Malaysia. Longitudinal data revealed that 57% of all infants born during the study period (2014-2023) died before the age of 1 year, far exceeding mortality rates reported for other wild primates.10,11,12,13,14 Importantly, prolonged time spent in the plantation during infancy decreased the likelihood of infant survival by 3-fold, likely caused by increased exposure to the threats inherent to this environment. Further, mortality risk was elevated for infants born to primiparous mothers and predicted by prolonged maternal interbirth intervals, suggesting potential long-term effects attributed to the uptake and/or accumulation of pesticides in mothers' bodies.15,16,17 Indeed, existing literature reports that pesticides may cross the placental barrier, thus impacting fetal development during pregnancy.18,19,20 Our findings emphasize the importance of minimizing anthropogenic threats to wildlife in agricultural landscapes by establishing environmentally friendly cultivation practices that can sustain wildlife populations in the long term.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Holzner
- German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research (iDiv) Halle-Jena-Leipzig, 04103 Leipzig, Germany; Department of Human Behavior, Ecology and Culture, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, 04103 Leipzig, Germany; Behavioural Ecology Research Group, Institute of Biology, University of Leipzig, 04103 Leipzig, Germany; School of Biological Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Pulau Pinang, Malaysia.
| | - Nurul Iza Adrina Mohd Rameli
- School of Biological Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Pulau Pinang, Malaysia; Malaysian Primatological Society, Kulim 09000 Kedah, Malaysia
| | - Nadine Ruppert
- School of Biological Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Pulau Pinang, Malaysia; Malaysian Primatological Society, Kulim 09000 Kedah, Malaysia.
| | - Anja Widdig
- German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research (iDiv) Halle-Jena-Leipzig, 04103 Leipzig, Germany; Department of Human Behavior, Ecology and Culture, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, 04103 Leipzig, Germany; Behavioural Ecology Research Group, Institute of Biology, University of Leipzig, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
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2
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Glick VJ, Power ML. Macronutrient composition of milk from captive southern pig-tailed macaques (Macaca nemestrina). Am J Primatol 2024; 86:e23570. [PMID: 37876290 DOI: 10.1002/ajp.23570] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2023] [Revised: 10/12/2023] [Accepted: 10/16/2023] [Indexed: 10/26/2023]
Abstract
Milk composition is a fundamental aspect of mammalian reproduction. Differences in milk composition between species may reflect phylogeny, dietary ecology, lactation strategy, and infant growth patterns, but may also vary within a species due to maternal body condition. This study presents the first published data on milk macronutrient composition of southern pig-tailed macaques (Macaca nemestrina) and compares the results with data on two other Cercopithecine species. Milk samples were obtained from five dams at 10- and 14-weeks postparturition. Macronutrient composition was determined at the Smithsonian's National Zoo and Conservation Biology Institute using proven methods developed over 30 years. On average (±SEM), the milk contained 83.9 ± 0.4% water, 6.7 ± 0.4% fat, 7.6 ± 0.1% sugar, 1.8 ± 0.1% protein, and 0.22 ± 0.01% mineral content. The Ca:P ratio was 1.8; concentrations of Ca and protein were correlated. Mean gross energy was 1.02 ± 0.03 kcal/g with most of the energy coming from fat (59.6 ± 1.5%), followed by sugar (29.9 ± 1.4%) and protein (10.5 ± 0.5%). The milks at 14 weeks of infant age were higher in energy than the milks at 10 weeks, with an increase in energy from fat (p = 0.005) and decrease in energy from sugar (p = 0.018). The energy from protein did not change (p = 0.272). Compared to captive rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta) and olive baboon (Papio anubis) milk assayed by identical methods, captive pig-tailed macaque milk was higher in energy, but after accounting for the higher milk energy there was no difference in the proportions of milk energy from protein, fat, and sugar. The captive pig-tailed dams were significantly heavier than reported values for wild pig-tailed macaques, suggesting high body condition. High body condition in captive Cercopithecines appears to result in milk higher in energy, with more energy coming from fat and less from sugar. However, variation in the proportion of milk energy from protein in captive Cercopithecine milks appears relatively constrained.
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Affiliation(s)
- Virginia J Glick
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Disease, Harvard School of Public Health, Harvard University, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian's National Zoo and Conservation Biology Institute, Washington, District of Columbia, USA
| | - Michael L Power
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian's National Zoo and Conservation Biology Institute, Washington, District of Columbia, USA
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Howarth ERI, Szott ID, Witham CL, Wilding CS, Bethell EJ. Genetic polymorphisms in the serotonin, dopamine and opioid pathways influence social attention in rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). PLoS One 2023; 18:e0288108. [PMID: 37531334 PMCID: PMC10395878 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0288108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2023] [Accepted: 06/20/2023] [Indexed: 08/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Behaviour has a significant heritable component; however, unpicking the variants of interest in the neural circuits and molecular pathways that underpin these has proven difficult. Here, we present a comprehensive analysis of the relationship between known and new candidate genes from identified pathways and key behaviours for survival in 109 adult rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). Eight genes involved in emotion were analysed for variation at a total of nine loci. Genetic data were then correlated with cognitive and observational measures of behaviour associated with wellbeing and survival using MCMC-based Bayesian GLMM in R, to account for relatedness within the macaque population. For four loci the variants genotyped were length polymorphisms (SLC6A4 5-hydroxytryptamine transporter length-polymorphic repeat (5-HTTLPR), SLC6A4 STin polymorphism, Tryptophan 5-hydroxylase 2 (TPH2) and Monoamine oxidase A (MAOA)) whilst for the other five (5-hydroxytryptamine receptor 2A (HTR2A), Dopamine Receptor D4 (DRD4), Oxytocin receptor (OXTR), Arginine vasopressin receptor 1A (AVPR1a), Opioid receptor mu(μ) 1 (OPRM1)) SNPs were analysed. STin genotype, DRD4 haplotype and OXTR haplotype were significantly associated with the cognitive and observational measures of behaviour associated with wellbeing and survival. Genotype for 5-HTTLPR, STin and AVPR1a, and haplotype for HTR2A, DRD4 and OXTR were significantly associated with the duration of behaviours including fear and anxiety. Understanding the biological underpinnings of individual variation in negative emotion (e.g., fear and anxiety), together with their impact on social behaviour (e.g., social attention including vigilance for threat) has application for managing primate populations in the wild and captivity, as well as potential translational application for understanding of the genetic basis of emotions in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emmeline R. I. Howarth
- Research Centre in Brain and Behaviour, School of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, United Kingdom
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Chester, Chester, United Kingdom
| | - Isabelle D. Szott
- Research Centre in Brain and Behaviour, School of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Claire L. Witham
- Centre for Macaques, Harwell Institute, Medical Research Council, Salisbury, United Kingdom
| | - Craig S. Wilding
- Biodiversity and Conservation Group, School of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Emily J. Bethell
- Research Centre in Brain and Behaviour, School of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, United Kingdom
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Li X, Santos R, Bernal JE, Li DD, Hargaden M, Khan NK. Biology and postnatal development of organ systems of cynomolgus monkeys (Macaca fascicularis). J Med Primatol 2023; 52:64-78. [PMID: 36300896 PMCID: PMC10092073 DOI: 10.1111/jmp.12622] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2022] [Revised: 07/29/2022] [Accepted: 08/13/2022] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The cynomolgus macaque has become the most used non-human primate species in nonclinical safety assessment during the past decades. METHODS This review summarizes the biological data and organ system development milestones of the cynomolgus macaque available in the literature. RESULTS The cynomolgus macaque is born precocious relative to humans in some organ systems (e.g., nervous, skeletal, respiratory, and gastrointestinal). Organ systems develop, refine, and expand at different rates after birth. In general, the respiratory, gastrointestinal, renal, and hematopoietic systems mature at approximately 3 years of age. The female reproductive, cardiovascular and hepatobiliary systems mature at approximately 4 years of age. The central nervous, skeletal, immune, male reproductive, and endocrine systems complete their development at approximately 5 to 9 years of age. CONCLUSIONS The cynomolgus macaque has no meaningful developmental differences in critical organ systems between 2 and 3 years of age for use in nonclinical safety assessment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiantang Li
- Drug Safety Research & Development and Comparative Medicine, Pfizer, Inc, Groton, Connecticut, USA
| | - Rosemary Santos
- Drug Safety Research & Development and Comparative Medicine, Pfizer, Inc, Groton, Connecticut, USA
| | - Jan E Bernal
- Drug Safety Research & Development and Comparative Medicine, Pfizer, Inc, Groton, Connecticut, USA
| | - Dingzhou D Li
- Early Clinical Development, Pfizer, Inc, Groton, Connecticut, USA
| | - Maureen Hargaden
- Drug Safety Research & Development and Comparative Medicine, Pfizer, Inc, Groton, Connecticut, USA
| | - Nasir K Khan
- Drug Safety Research & Development and Comparative Medicine, Pfizer, Inc, Groton, Connecticut, USA
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Wood EK, Baron Z, Kruger R, Halter C, Gabrielle N, Neville L, Smith E, Marett L, Johnson M, Del Rosso L, Capitanio JP, Higley JD. Variation in the serotonin transporter genotype is associated with maternal restraint and rejection of infants: A nonhuman primate (Macaca mulatta) model. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0281935. [PMID: 37093803 PMCID: PMC10124887 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0281935] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2022] [Accepted: 02/03/2023] [Indexed: 04/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Studies show that maternal behaviors are mediated by the bivariate serotonin transporter (5-HTT) genotype, although the findings are mixed, with some studies showing that mothers with the s allele exhibit increased maternal sensitivity, while other studies show that mothers with the s allele show decreased maternal sensitivity. Nonhuman primate studies offer increased control over extraneous variables and may contribute to a better understanding of the effects of the 5-HTT genotype on maternal sensitivity. This study assesses the influence of 5-HTT genotype variation on maternal sensitivity in parenting in 125 rhesus macaque mothers (Macaca mulatta) during the first three-months of their infants' lives, an age well before typical infants undergo weaning. Mothers were genotyped for the 5-HTT genotype and maternal behaviors were collected, including neglectfulness, sensitivity, and premature rejections during undisturbed social interactions. Results showed that mothers homozygous for the s allele rejected their infants the most and restrained their infants the least, an indication that mothers with the s allele are more likely to neglect their infants' psychological and physical needs. These findings suggest that, at an age when an infant's needs are based on warmth, security, and protection, mothers with an s allele exhibit less sensitive maternal behaviors. High rates of rejections and low rates of restraints are behaviors that typically characterize premature weaning and are inappropriate for their infant's young age. This study is an important step in understanding the etiology of variability in maternal warmth and care, and further suggests that maternal 5-HTT genotype should be examined in studies assessing genetic influences on variation in maternal sensitivity, and ultimately, mother-infant attachment quality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth K Wood
- Department of Psychology, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah, United States of America
| | - Zachary Baron
- Department of Neuroscience, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah, United States of America
| | - Ryno Kruger
- Department of Psychology, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah, United States of America
| | - Colt Halter
- Department of Psychology, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah, United States of America
| | - Natalia Gabrielle
- Department of Psychology, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah, United States of America
| | - Leslie Neville
- Department of Neuroscience, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah, United States of America
| | - Ellie Smith
- Department of Psychology, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah, United States of America
| | - Leah Marett
- Department of Neuroscience, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah, United States of America
| | - Miranda Johnson
- Department of Psychology, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah, United States of America
| | - Laura Del Rosso
- California National Primate Research Center (CNPRC), Davis, California, United States of America
| | - John P Capitanio
- California National Primate Research Center (CNPRC), Davis, California, United States of America
- Department of Psychology, University of California-Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - J Dee Higley
- Department of Psychology, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah, United States of America
- Department of Neuroscience, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah, United States of America
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Massey DA, Peters F, Willshire J, Witham CL. Factors Associated with Injury Rate and Pregnancy Success in Rhesus Macaques. BIOLOGY 2022; 11:biology11070979. [PMID: 36101360 PMCID: PMC9311521 DOI: 10.3390/biology11070979] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2022] [Revised: 06/11/2022] [Accepted: 06/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Fight injuries are a major welfare concern in group-housed rhesus macaques. This is particularly a problem in breeding groups. We investigated which factors might affect the injury rate in group-housed macaques and also looked at how the same factors might affect productivity. We analysed 10 years of health records at a breeding colony in which monkeys were kept in small breeding groups consisting of a single adult male and 2−13 females and their offspring or single-sex juvenile groups. We found that females over the age of 2.5 years in breeding groups were the most likely to be injured. We focused on these females and used generalised mixed-effect models to examine which factors affected the injury rate and their productivity (probability of getting pregnant). The biggest risk factor for injury was the introduction of a new adult male to a breeding group. However, this also produced a large increase in the proportion of females that became pregnant, suggesting that there may be a trade-off between the risk of injury and the productivity. We also found that females in large groups with a young breeding male had a very high risk of injury. We recommend keeping young breeding males (<7 years) in smaller groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- David A. Massey
- Centre for Macaques, Harwell Institute, Medical Research Council, Salisbury SP4 0JQ, UK; (D.A.M.); (F.P.)
- Biosciences Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE2 4HH, UK
| | - Faye Peters
- Centre for Macaques, Harwell Institute, Medical Research Council, Salisbury SP4 0JQ, UK; (D.A.M.); (F.P.)
| | | | - Claire L. Witham
- Centre for Macaques, Harwell Institute, Medical Research Council, Salisbury SP4 0JQ, UK; (D.A.M.); (F.P.)
- Correspondence:
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Rox A, Waasdorp S, Sterck EHM, Langermans JAM, Louwerse AL. Multigenerational Social Housing and Group-Rearing Enhance Female Reproductive Success in Captive Rhesus Macaques (Macaca mulatta). BIOLOGY 2022; 11:biology11070970. [PMID: 36101351 PMCID: PMC9311885 DOI: 10.3390/biology11070970] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2022] [Revised: 06/24/2022] [Accepted: 06/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Simple Summary It is currently common practice to house non-human primates at biomedical research facilities, e.g., rhesus macaques, in social groups. To enhance female reproductive success, peer groups are formed. In these breeding groups, infants are taken from their mother at an age of ten months and housed with animals of approximately the same age. Yet for welfare, leaving offspring with their mother and allowing multigenerational groups including families is preferred. This argues that a trade-off between female reproductive success and welfare exists. In this retrospective study we investigated the differences in female rhesus macaque reproductive success between peer groups and multigenerational groups. Our results show that females in multigenerational groups have more births per year and have higher offspring survival compared with those in peer groups. Thus, housing rhesus macaques in multigenerational groups provides a win−win situation, rather than a trade-off, in which female reproductive success and animal welfare can simultaneously be optimized. Abstract To optimize costs and reproductive success, rhesus macaques in biomedical primate research facilities are often peer-reared. Older, dependent infants are typically removed from their natal group to enhance female reproduction. The minimal husbandry age-norm of infant removal is ten months. These practices deviate from species-specific behavior and may reduce welfare, suggesting a trade-off between female reproduction and welfare. However, the effect of breeding group type and rearing history on female reproductive success (i.e., birth rate; inter-birth interval (IBI); offspring survival) is unclear. This retrospective study investigated whether group type (i.e., peer groups versus multigenerational groups) and rearing history (i.e., peer- or hand-reared; group-reared with peer- or hand-reared mother; group-reared) affected female reproductive success in captive rhesus macaques. Data on female reproduction between 1996 and 2019 were collected at the Biomedical Primate Research Centre, Rijswijk. Birth rates were higher in multigenerational breeding groups than in peer groups. Moreover, group-reared females had higher offspring survival than peer- or hand-reared females. IBI was not affected by breeding group type or female rearing history. However, females in both peer and multigenerational breeding groups typically conceived earlier after giving birth than the husbandry infant removal age-norm of ten months. Thus, infant removal at an age of ten months does not enhance a female’s reproduction. Altogether, female reproduction and non-human primate welfare can simultaneously be optimized through multigenerational breeding groups and group-rearing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Astrid Rox
- Biomedical Primate Research Centre, 2288 GJ Rijswijk, The Netherlands; (A.R.); (E.H.M.S.); (J.A.M.L.); (A.L.L.)
- Animal Behaviour and Cognition, Department of Biology, Utrecht University, 3584 CH Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Sophie Waasdorp
- Biomedical Primate Research Centre, 2288 GJ Rijswijk, The Netherlands; (A.R.); (E.H.M.S.); (J.A.M.L.); (A.L.L.)
- Animal Behaviour and Cognition, Department of Biology, Utrecht University, 3584 CH Utrecht, The Netherlands
- Correspondence:
| | - Elisabeth H. M. Sterck
- Biomedical Primate Research Centre, 2288 GJ Rijswijk, The Netherlands; (A.R.); (E.H.M.S.); (J.A.M.L.); (A.L.L.)
- Animal Behaviour and Cognition, Department of Biology, Utrecht University, 3584 CH Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Jan A. M. Langermans
- Biomedical Primate Research Centre, 2288 GJ Rijswijk, The Netherlands; (A.R.); (E.H.M.S.); (J.A.M.L.); (A.L.L.)
- Department Population Health Sciences, Unit Animals in Science & Society, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, 3584 CM Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Annet L. Louwerse
- Biomedical Primate Research Centre, 2288 GJ Rijswijk, The Netherlands; (A.R.); (E.H.M.S.); (J.A.M.L.); (A.L.L.)
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The Effects of At-Birth Adoption on Atypical Behavior and Anxiety: A Nonhuman Primate Model. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2021; 60:1382-1393. [PMID: 34116166 PMCID: PMC9383052 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaac.2021.04.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2020] [Revised: 03/27/2021] [Accepted: 06/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Adopted children tend to show an increased risk for a variety of psychopathological outcomes, even when adoption occurs at birth, which some suggest is a result of nonrandom assignment of adoptees and parents. This study uses a nonhuman primate model, in which adoptions were randomly assigned, to investigate the behavioral and physiological outcomes associated with at-birth adoption. METHOD Immediately following birth, rhesus monkey infants were randomly assigned to be reared by either their biological mother (n = 113) or by an unrelated, lactating, adoptive mother (n = 34). At 6 months of age, infant behavior and physiology were assessed during a stressful series of mother-infant separations. Four years later, stress-related behaviors were measured following confrontation by an unfamiliar intruder, an ecologically meaningful stressor. RESULTS When compared to infants reared by their biological mothers, adopted infants exhibited more behavioral withdrawal and higher plasma adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) concentrations in response to separation. These behavioral differences persisted 4 years later during a stressful intruder challenge, with adoptees exhibiting more behavioral withdrawal, stereotypies, and impulsive approaches of the potentially aggressive intruder. CONCLUSION Compared to infants reared by their biological mothers, adopted infants exhibited more behavioral inhibition, impulsivity, and higher ACTH concentrations, even when subjects were randomly assigned to be adopted or to remain with their biological mother. To the extent that these findings generalize to humans, they suggest that the overall risk for psychopathology in adopted individuals persists even after random assignment to adoption conditions.
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Recommendations for Abnormal Behaviour Ethograms in Monkey Research. Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:ani11051461. [PMID: 34069667 PMCID: PMC8160873 DOI: 10.3390/ani11051461] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2021] [Revised: 05/10/2021] [Accepted: 05/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Laboratory monkey ethograms currently include subcategories of abnormal behaviours that are based on superficial morphological similarity. Yet, such ethograms may be misclassifying behaviour, with potential welfare implications as different abnormal behaviours are likely to have distinct risk factors and treatments. We therefore investigated the convergent validity of four hypothesized subcategories of abnormal behaviours ('motor', e.g., pacing; 'self-stimulation', e.g., self-sucking; 'postural', e.g., hanging; and 'self-abuse', e.g., self-biting). This hypothesis predicts positive relationships between the behaviours within each subcategory. Rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta) data on 19 abnormal behaviours were obtained from indoor-housed animals (n = 1183). Logistic regression models, controlling for sex, age, and the number of observations, revealed that only 1/6 'motor' behaviours positively predicted pacing, while 2/3 'self-abuse' behaviours positively predicted self-biting (one-tailed p-value < 0.05). Furthermore, 'self-stimulation' behaviours did not predict self-sucking, and none of the 'postural' behaviours predicted hanging. Thus, none of the subcategories fully met convergent validity. Subsequently, we created four new valid subcategories formed of comorbid behaviours. The first consisted of self-biting, self-hitting, self-injurious behaviour, floating limb, leg-lifting, and self-clasping. The second comprised twirling, bouncing, rocking, swinging, and hanging. The third comprised pacing and head-twisting, while the final subcategory consisted of flipping and eye-poking. Self-sucking, hair-plucking, threat-biting, and withdrawn remained as individual behaviours. We encourage laboratories to replicate the validation of these subcategories first, and for scientists working with other species to validate their ethograms before using them in welfare assessments.
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10
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Holzner A, Balasubramaniam KN, Weiß BM, Ruppert N, Widdig A. Oil palm cultivation critically affects sociality in a threatened Malaysian primate. Sci Rep 2021; 11:10353. [PMID: 33990658 PMCID: PMC8121792 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-89783-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2020] [Accepted: 04/30/2021] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Human-induced habitat alterations globally threaten animal populations, often evoking complex behavioural responses in wildlife. This may be particularly dramatic when negatively affecting social behaviour, which fundamentally determines individual fitness and offspring survival in group-living animals. Here, we provide first evidence for significant behavioural modifications in sociality of southern pig-tailed macaques visiting Malaysian oil palm plantations in search of food despite elevated predation risk. Specifically, we found critical reductions of key positive social interactions but higher rates of aggression in the plantation interior compared to the plantation edge (i.e. plantation areas bordering the forest) and the forest. At the plantation edge, affiliation even increased compared to the forest, while central positions in the macaques' social network structure shifted from high-ranking adult females and immatures to low-ranking individuals. Further, plantations also affected mother-infant relationships, with macaque mothers being more protective in the open plantation environment. We suggest that although primates can temporarily persist in human-altered habitats, their ability to permanently adapt requires the presence of close-by forest and comes with a trade-off in sociality, potentially hampering individual fitness and infant survival. Studies like ours remain critical for understanding species' adaptability to anthropogenic landscapes, which may ultimately contribute to facilitating their coexistence with humans and preserving biodiversity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Holzner
- Department of Human Behaviour, Ecology and Culture, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, 04103, Leipzig, Germany
- Behavioural Ecology Research Group, Institute of Biology, University of Leipzig, 04103, Leipzig, Germany
- School of Biological Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia
| | - Krishna N Balasubramaniam
- Department of Population Health and Reproduction, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California at Davis, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - Brigitte M Weiß
- Department of Human Behaviour, Ecology and Culture, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, 04103, Leipzig, Germany
- Behavioural Ecology Research Group, Institute of Biology, University of Leipzig, 04103, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Nadine Ruppert
- School of Biological Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia.
- Malaysian Primatological Society, 09000, Kulim, Kedah, Malaysia.
| | - Anja Widdig
- Department of Human Behaviour, Ecology and Culture, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, 04103, Leipzig, Germany.
- Behavioural Ecology Research Group, Institute of Biology, University of Leipzig, 04103, Leipzig, Germany.
- German Center for Integrative Biodiversity Research, 04103, Leipzig, Germany.
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11
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Rox A, van Vliet AH, Langermans JAM, Sterck EHM, Louwerse AL. A Stepwise Male Introduction Procedure to Prevent Inbreeding in Naturalistic Macaque Breeding Groups. Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:ani11020545. [PMID: 33669865 PMCID: PMC7923220 DOI: 10.3390/ani11020545] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2021] [Revised: 02/09/2021] [Accepted: 02/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Male introductions into captive primate breeding groups can be risky and unsuccessful. However, they are necessary to prevent inbreeding in naturalistic breeding groups. The procedure used to introduce new individuals may affect the success and influence the risks associated with group introductions. At the Biomedical Primate Research Centre (BPRC) in Rijswijk, the Netherlands, male rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta) introductions into naturalistic social groups with a matrilineal structure and without a breeding male achieve relatively high success rates. This paper describes the male introduction procedure used at the BPRC. Males are stepwise familiarized with and introduced to their new group, while all interactions between the new male and the resident females are closely monitored. Monitoring the behaviour of the resident females and their new male during all stages of the introduction provides crucial information as to whether or not it is safe to proceed. The BPRC introduction procedure is widely applicable and may improve the management of captive primate groups in any housing facility worldwide. Thus, the careful introduction management can minimize the risk associated with male introductions and enhance the welfare of captive primates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Astrid Rox
- Biomedical Primate Research Centre, Animal Science Department, 2288 GJ Rijswijk, The Netherlands; (A.R.); (A.H.v.V.); (E.H.M.S.); (A.L.L.)
- Animal Behaviour & Cognition (Formerly Animal Ecology), Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, 3508 TB Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - André H. van Vliet
- Biomedical Primate Research Centre, Animal Science Department, 2288 GJ Rijswijk, The Netherlands; (A.R.); (A.H.v.V.); (E.H.M.S.); (A.L.L.)
| | - Jan A. M. Langermans
- Biomedical Primate Research Centre, Animal Science Department, 2288 GJ Rijswijk, The Netherlands; (A.R.); (A.H.v.V.); (E.H.M.S.); (A.L.L.)
- Department Population Health Sciences, Division Animals in Science and Society, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, 3584 CM Utrecht, The Netherlands
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +31-152-842-620
| | - Elisabeth H. M. Sterck
- Biomedical Primate Research Centre, Animal Science Department, 2288 GJ Rijswijk, The Netherlands; (A.R.); (A.H.v.V.); (E.H.M.S.); (A.L.L.)
- Animal Behaviour & Cognition (Formerly Animal Ecology), Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, 3508 TB Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Annet L. Louwerse
- Biomedical Primate Research Centre, Animal Science Department, 2288 GJ Rijswijk, The Netherlands; (A.R.); (A.H.v.V.); (E.H.M.S.); (A.L.L.)
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Prescott MJ. Ethical and Welfare Implications of Genetically Altered Non-Human Primates for Biomedical Research. JOURNAL OF APPLIED ANIMAL ETHICS RESEARCH 2020; 2:151-176. [PMID: 33851094 PMCID: PMC7610575 DOI: 10.1163/25889567-bja10002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Breakthroughs in gene editing technologies have made it feasible to create genetically altered (GA) non-human primate (NHP) models of disease. This area of research is accelerating, particularly in China, Japan and the USA, and could lead to an increase in NHP use globally. The hope is that genetic models in animal species closely related to humans will significantly improve understanding of neurological diseases and validation of potential therapeutic interventions, for which there is a dire need. However, the creation and use of GA NHPS raises serious animal welfare and ethical issues, which are highlighted here. It represents a step change in how these highly sentient animals are used in biomedical research, because of the large numbers required, inherent wastage and the sum of the harms caused to the animals involved. There is little evidence of these important issues being addressed alongside the rapidly advancing science. We are still learning about how gene editing tools work in NHPS, and significant added scientific and medical benefit from GA NHP models has yet to be demonstrated. Together, this suggests that current regulatory and review frameworks, in some jurisdictions at least, are not adequately equipped to deal with this emerging, complex area of NHP use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark J. Prescott
- National Centre for the Replacement, Refinement and Reduction of Animals in Research (NC3Rs), Gibbs Building, 215 Euston Road, London, NW1 2BE, UK
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13
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Santostefano M, Herzyk D, Montgomery D, Wolf J. Nonclinical safety of tildrakizumab, a humanized anti-IL-23p19 monoclonal antibody, in nonhuman primates. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2019; 108:104476. [PMID: 31536773 DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2019.104476] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2019] [Revised: 07/18/2019] [Accepted: 09/13/2019] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Tildrakizumab (also known as MK-3222), is a high-affinity, humanized, immunoglobin G1κ monoclonal antibody targeting the p19 subunit of interleukin-23 recently approved for the treatment of moderate to severe plaque psoriasis in the US, Europe, and Australia. The safety profile of tildrakizumab was characterized in nonclinical studies using a pharmacologically relevant cynomolgus monkey model. In repeat-dose toxicity studies, cynomolgus monkeys were chronically treated with subcutaneous (SC) injections of 100 mg/kg of tildrakizumab every 2 weeks up to 9 months. Tildrakizumab was well tolerated, with no toxicological findings (including assessment of reproductive organs; hormonal effects; and cardiovascular, respiratory, and central nervous system function) at systemic exposures approximately 90 times higher than the recommended human dose of 100 mg. An embryofetal developmental study conducted in pregnant monkeys revealed no treatment-related effects to the developing fetus following SC administration of tildrakizumab 100 mg/kg. In a pre- and postnatal development study, 2 neonatal deaths due to potential viral infection at 100 mg/kg were considered of uncertain relationship to the treatment based on a lack of historical data on the occurrence of viral infection in neonate cynomolgus monkeys. The results of this comprehensive nonclinical safety program support the safe use of tildrakizumab.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Santostefano
- Safety Assessment and Laboratory Animal Resources, Merck & Co., Inc., 33 Avenue Louis Pasteur, Boston, MA, 02115-5727, United States.
| | - Danuta Herzyk
- Safety Assessment and Laboratory Animal Resources, Merck & Co., Inc., 770 Sumneytown Pike, West Point, PA, 19486, United States.
| | - Diana Montgomery
- Pharmacokinetics, Predictive and Clinical Immunogenicity, Merck & Co., Inc., 770 Sumneytown Pike, West Point, PA, 19486, United States.
| | - Jayanthi Wolf
- Global Regulatory Affairs, Merck & Co., Inc., 351 N. Sumneytown Pike, North Wales, PA, 19454-2505, United States.
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Rox A, van Vliet AH, Sterck EHM, Langermans JAM, Louwerse AL. Factors determining male introduction success and long-term stability in captive rhesus macaques. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0219972. [PMID: 31314795 PMCID: PMC6636842 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0219972] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2019] [Accepted: 07/06/2019] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
The entrance of new males into non-human primate groups bears high social risk, yet migration is necessary to prevent inbreeding. Males are not always accepted in their new group. In the wild, males may increase the likelihood of successful group entry by choosing a new group based on their own and the group's characteristics. Understanding whether these characteristics also determine a male's ability to enter captive groups is crucial to improve introduction management. This study aims to identify which factors determine male introduction success (i.e. male stays in the group for at least 4 weeks) and long-term stability (i.e. the male does not cause considerable behavioural problems after success) after male introductions in captive groups of rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta), creating one-male groups. We studied 64 male introductions at the breeding colony of the Biomedical Primate Research Centre in Rijswijk, The Netherlands. 49 (77%) introductions were successful, with the male obtaining a long-term stable social position in the group in 38 (59%) introductions. Introductions of males that reached at least prime age, into groups with more adult females, but without pregnant females were most successful. Moreover, long-term stability was highest when males were heavier, were at least 3.5 years old when they were first removed from their natal group, and groups had few matrilines and no pregnant females were present. Males should be introduced at the time they would naturally immigrate, when they are strongest. Moreover, groups should consist of few large matrilines, as observed in the wild, with philoatric females and males that are removed at natural age. Our study highlights the importance of composing naturalistic groups and mimicking natural migration patterns to maintain long-term stable breeding groups in captivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Astrid Rox
- Animal Science Department, Biomedical Primate Research Centre, Rijswijk, The Netherlands
- Animal Ecology, Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - André H. van Vliet
- Animal Science Department, Biomedical Primate Research Centre, Rijswijk, The Netherlands
| | - Elisabeth H. M. Sterck
- Animal Science Department, Biomedical Primate Research Centre, Rijswijk, The Netherlands
- Animal Ecology, Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Jan A. M. Langermans
- Animal Science Department, Biomedical Primate Research Centre, Rijswijk, The Netherlands
- Department of Animals in Science and Society, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Annet L. Louwerse
- Animal Science Department, Biomedical Primate Research Centre, Rijswijk, The Netherlands
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Rose PE, Nash SM, Riley LM. To pace or not to pace? A review of what abnormal repetitive behavior tells us about zoo animal management. J Vet Behav 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jveb.2017.02.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
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Hannibal DL, Bliss-Moreau E, Vandeleest J, McCowan B, Capitanio J. Laboratory rhesus macaque social housing and social changes: Implications for research. Am J Primatol 2017; 79:1-14. [PMID: 26848542 PMCID: PMC5436575 DOI: 10.1002/ajp.22528] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2015] [Revised: 11/30/2015] [Accepted: 01/04/2016] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Macaque species, specifically rhesus (Macaca mulatta), are the most common nonhuman primates (NHPs) used in biomedical research due to their suitability as a model of high priority diseases (e.g., HIV, obesity, cognitive aging), cost effective breeding and housing compared to most other NHPs, and close evolutionary relationship to humans. With this close evolutionary relationship, however, is a shared adaptation for a socially stimulating environment, without which both their welfare and suitability as a research model are compromised. While outdoor social group housing provides the best approximation of a social environment that matches the macaque behavioral biology in the wild, this is not always possible at all facilities, where animals may be housed indoors in small groups, in pairs, or alone. Further, animals may experience many housing changes in their lifetime depending on project needs, changes in social status, management needs, or health concerns. Here, we review the evidence for the physiological and health effects of social housing changes and the potential impacts on research outcomes for studies using macaques, particularly rhesus. We situate our review in the context of increasing regulatory pressure for research facilities to both house NHPs socially and mitigate trauma from social aggression. To meet these regulatory requirements and further refine the macaque model for research, significant advances must be made in our understanding and management of rhesus macaque social housing, particularly pair-housing since it is the most common social housing configuration for macaques while on research projects. Because most NHPs are adapted for sociality, a social context is likely important for improving repeatability, reproducibility, and external validity of primate biomedical research. Am. J. Primatol. 79:e22528, 2017. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Darcy L Hannibal
- California National Primate Research Center, University of California, Davis, California
- Department of Population Health and Reproduction, University of California, Davis, California
| | - Eliza Bliss-Moreau
- California National Primate Research Center, University of California, Davis, California
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of California, Davis, California
| | - Jessica Vandeleest
- California National Primate Research Center, University of California, Davis, California
| | - Brenda McCowan
- California National Primate Research Center, University of California, Davis, California
- Department of Population Health and Reproduction, University of California, Davis, California
| | - John Capitanio
- California National Primate Research Center, University of California, Davis, California
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Davis, California
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Polanco A. A Tinbergian review of self-injurious behaviors in laboratory rhesus macaques. Appl Anim Behav Sci 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2016.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
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Naiken S, Griffiths MA, Edouard L, Padayatchy N. Factors influencing reproduction in captive-bred cynomolgus monkeys (Macaca fascicularis) from Mauritius. Am J Primatol 2015; 77:1290-8. [PMID: 26375598 DOI: 10.1002/ajp.22482] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2015] [Revised: 09/04/2015] [Accepted: 09/05/2015] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
The cynomolgus monkey is widely used in reproductive research. However, the effects on their reproductive parameters of infant and maternal factors such as birth order, sex of infants, twin births, maternal age and lactation status have not been fully examined. The aim of this retrospective study was to determine how such infant and maternal factors impact on infant birth weight, birth viability, neonatal loss and retained placenta in cynomolgus monkeys. The study was based on birth data from a cohort of 789 females over an eight-year period. Consistent with reports made in other macaque species, female offspring had lower birth weight compared with males. Birth weights of firstborn infants were lower compared with birth weights of higher birth order infants. Results from the logistic regression analysis showed that the risk of non-viable births was increased by advancing maternal age and retained placenta. As in other non-human primates, maternal age had predictive value for non-viable births in cynomolgus monkeys. The risk of neonatal loss decreased with advancing maternal age but was not affected by birth order. Firstborn offspring did not have an increased risk for neonatal loss, possibly from the practice of retaining mothers in their natal groups, which improved maternal skills in primiparous females. However, infant low birth weight and non-lactating females increased the risk of neonatal loss, and the delivery of low birth weight infants was associated with retained placenta. The results from this study can be useful for scientists conducting reproductive studies and for colony managers in maximizing fertility and infant survival of cynomolgus monkeys.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandiren Naiken
- Bioculture (Mauritius) Ltd, Senneville, Rivière des Anguilles, Mauritius
| | - Mary-Ann Griffiths
- Bioculture (Mauritius) Ltd, Senneville, Rivière des Anguilles, Mauritius
| | - Lindsay Edouard
- Bioculture (Mauritius) Ltd, Senneville, Rivière des Anguilles, Mauritius
| | - Nada Padayatchy
- Bioculture (Mauritius) Ltd, Senneville, Rivière des Anguilles, Mauritius
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Feenders G, Bateson M. Hand rearing affects emotional responses but not basic cognitive performance in European starlings. Anim Behav 2013; 86:127-138. [PMID: 23888084 PMCID: PMC3719021 DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2013.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2012] [Revised: 12/12/2012] [Accepted: 04/09/2013] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Hand rearing is a common procedure in behavioural research on birds. While likely to produce tamer experimental animals, there is a risk that it could induce pathological changes in brain and behaviour similar to those seen in mammals that have experienced maternal separation. We explored the effects of hand rearing on the cognitive and behavioural development of European starlings, Sturnus vulgaris, to assess the generality of results obtained from hand-reared animals. Two groups of age-matched birds were created from the same wild population: one hand-reared from 10 days posthatch and one brought into the laboratory as independent juveniles. These groups were compared on a battery of neuropsychological tasks designed to probe different aspects of cognitive function including learning, perseverative cognition, interval timing, neophobia and impulsivity. There was no evidence for cognitive impairment in the hand-reared birds. They did not have reduced learning speed, impairments in accuracy or precision of interval timing or pathological perseverative cognition compared to the wild-caught birds. Additionally, there was no evidence that birds that developed stereotypies in laboratory cages (predominantly the wild-caught birds) had any cognitive impairments, although this may be because no birds had severe, crystallized stereotypies. There was some evidence that hand-reared birds were less neophobic and less impulsive than wild-caught birds, suggesting that hand rearing might alter emotionally mediated decision making in a direction usually associated with reduced developmental stress in mammals. This study therefore supports the use of hand rearing as an experimental procedure in behavioural research on passerine birds.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Melissa Bateson
- Centre for Behaviour and Evolution, Institute of Neuroscience, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, U.K
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20
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Bloomsmith MA. Preface. Appl Anim Behav Sci 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2012.01.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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