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Watson PE, Thomas DG, Bermingham EN, Schreurs NM, Parker ME. Drivers of Palatability for Cats and Dogs-What It Means for Pet Food Development. Animals (Basel) 2023; 13:ani13071134. [PMID: 37048390 PMCID: PMC10093350 DOI: 10.3390/ani13071134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2023] [Revised: 03/17/2023] [Accepted: 03/22/2023] [Indexed: 04/14/2023] Open
Abstract
The pet food industry is an important sector of the pet care market that is growing rapidly. Whilst the number of new and innovative products continues to rise, research and development to assess product performance follows traditional palatability methodology. Pet food palatability research focuses on the amount of food consumed through use of one-bowl and two-bowl testing, but little understanding is given to why differences are observed, particularly at a fundamental ingredient level. This review will highlight the key differences in feeding behaviour and nutritional requirements between dogs and cats. The dominant pet food formats currently available and the ingredients commonly included in pet foods are also described. The current methods used for assessing pet food palatability and their limitations are outlined. The opportunities to utilise modern analytical methods to identify complete foods that are more palatable and understand the nutritional factors responsible for driving intake are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pavinee E Watson
- School of Agriculture and Environment, Massey University, Palmerston North 4474, New Zealand
| | - David G Thomas
- School of Agriculture and Environment, Massey University, Palmerston North 4474, New Zealand
| | - Emma N Bermingham
- Added Value Foods & Bio-Based Products, AgResearch Te Ohu Rangahau Kai, Palmerston North 4474, New Zealand
| | - Nicola M Schreurs
- School of Agriculture and Environment, Massey University, Palmerston North 4474, New Zealand
| | - Michael E Parker
- School of Food and Advanced Technology, Massey University, Palmerston North 4474, New Zealand
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Coria-Avila GA, Pfaus JG, Orihuela A, Domínguez-Oliva A, José-Pérez N, Hernández LA, Mota-Rojas D. The Neurobiology of Behavior and Its Applicability for Animal Welfare: A Review. Animals (Basel) 2022; 12:ani12070928. [PMID: 35405916 PMCID: PMC8997080 DOI: 10.3390/ani12070928] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2022] [Revised: 03/17/2022] [Accepted: 03/31/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Animal welfare is the result of physical and psychological well-being and is expected to occur if animals are free: (1) from hunger, thirst and malnutrition, (2) from discomfort, (3) from pain, (4) to express normal behavior, and (5) from fear and distress. Nevertheless, well-being is not a constant state but rather the result of certain brain dynamics underlying innate motivated behaviors and learned responses. Thus, by understanding the foundations of the neurobiology of behavior we fathom how emotions and well-being occur in the brain. Herein, we discuss the potential applicability of this approach for animal welfare. First, we provide a general view of the basic responses coordinated by the central nervous system from the processing of internal and external stimuli. Then, we discuss how those stimuli mediate activity in seven neurobiological systems that evoke innate emotional and behavioral responses that directly influence well-being and biological fitness. Finally, we discuss the basic mechanisms of learning and how it affects motivated responses and welfare. Abstract Understanding the foundations of the neurobiology of behavior and well-being can help us better achieve animal welfare. Behavior is the expression of several physiological, endocrine, motor and emotional responses that are coordinated by the central nervous system from the processing of internal and external stimuli. In mammals, seven basic emotional systems have been described that when activated by the right stimuli evoke positive or negative innate responses that evolved to facilitate biological fitness. This review describes the process of how those neurobiological systems can directly influence animal welfare. We also describe examples of the interaction between primary (innate) and secondary (learned) processes that influence behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Genaro A. Coria-Avila
- Instituto de Investigaciones Cerebrales, Universidad Veracruzana, Avenida Luis Castelazo S/N, Col. Industrial Ánimas, Xalapa 91190, Mexico;
- Correspondence: (G.A.C.-A.); (D.M.-R.)
| | - James G. Pfaus
- Instituto de Investigaciones Cerebrales, Universidad Veracruzana, Avenida Luis Castelazo S/N, Col. Industrial Ánimas, Xalapa 91190, Mexico;
- Department of Psychology and Life Sciences, Charles University, 182 00 Prague, Czech Republic
- Czech National Institute of Mental Health, 250 67 Klecany, Czech Republic
| | - Agustín Orihuela
- Facultad de Ciencias Agropecuarias, Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Morelos, Cuernavaca 62209, Mexico;
| | - Adriana Domínguez-Oliva
- Neurophysiology, Behavior and Animal Welfare Assessment, DPAA, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana (UAM), Unidad Xochimilco, Mexico City 04960, Mexico; (A.D.-O.); (N.J.-P.); (L.A.H.)
| | - Nancy José-Pérez
- Neurophysiology, Behavior and Animal Welfare Assessment, DPAA, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana (UAM), Unidad Xochimilco, Mexico City 04960, Mexico; (A.D.-O.); (N.J.-P.); (L.A.H.)
| | - Laura Astrid Hernández
- Neurophysiology, Behavior and Animal Welfare Assessment, DPAA, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana (UAM), Unidad Xochimilco, Mexico City 04960, Mexico; (A.D.-O.); (N.J.-P.); (L.A.H.)
| | - Daniel Mota-Rojas
- Neurophysiology, Behavior and Animal Welfare Assessment, DPAA, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana (UAM), Unidad Xochimilco, Mexico City 04960, Mexico; (A.D.-O.); (N.J.-P.); (L.A.H.)
- Correspondence: (G.A.C.-A.); (D.M.-R.)
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Watanabe S, Masuda S, Shinozuka K, Borlongan C. Preference and discrimination of facial expressions of humans, rats, and mice by C57 mice. Anim Cogn 2021; 25:297-306. [PMID: 34417921 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-021-01551-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2020] [Revised: 06/23/2021] [Accepted: 08/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Social animals likely recognize emotional expressions in other animals. Recent studies suggest that mice can visually perceive emotional expressions of other mice. In the first experiment, we measured the preference of mice for two different facial expressions (a normal facial expression and an expression of negative emotion such as pain) of rats, mice, and humans. Results revealed that mice showed a slight preference for the normal expression over the face expressing pain in the case of rats, but no preference in the case of others. In the second experiment, we trained mice to discriminate between the two facial expressions in an operant chamber with a touch screen. They could discriminate facial expressions of mice and rats, but they did not show discrimination of human facial expressions. Principal component analysis of the images of stimuli reveals negative correlation between pixel-based dissimilarity of training stimuli and the number of sessions to criterion. The mice showed generalization to novel images of the mouse faces with and without pain but did not maintain their discriminative behavior when new rat faces were shown. These results suggest that mice display category discrimination of conspecific facial expressions but not of other species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shigeru Watanabe
- Department of Psychology, Keio University, Mita 2-15-45, Minato-Ku, Tokyo, 108-8345, Japan.
| | - Sayako Masuda
- Jyumonji University, 2-1-28 Sugasawa, Niiza, Saitama, Japan
| | - Kazutaka Shinozuka
- RIKEN Center for Brain Science, 2-1 Hirosawa, Wako, Saitama, 351-0198, Japan
| | - Cesario Borlongan
- University of South Florida, MDC 78, 12901 Bruce Downs Blvd, Tampa, FL33612, USA
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Knight A, Satchell L. Vegan versus meat-based pet foods: Owner-reported palatability behaviours and implications for canine and feline welfare. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0253292. [PMID: 34133456 PMCID: PMC8208530 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0253292] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2021] [Accepted: 06/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Consumer suspicion of conventional pet foods, along with perceived health benefits of alternative diets, are fuelling development of the latter. These include raw meat diets, in vitro meat products, and diets based on novel protein sources such as terrestrial and marine plants, insects, yeast and fungi. However, some claim vegan diets may be less palatable, or may compromise animal welfare. We surveyed 4,060 dog or cat guardians to determine the importance to them of pet food palatability, and the degree to which their animals displayed specific behavioural indicators of palatability at meal times. Guardians were asked to choose one dog or cat that had been within their household for at least one year, and not on a prescription or therapeutic diet. Of 3,976 respondents who played some role in pet diet decision-making, palatability was the third most important among 12 factors cited as important when choosing pet diets. For 1,585 respondents feeding conventional or raw meat diets, who stated they would realistically consider alternative diets, palatability was the fourth most important among 14 desired attributes. For the 2,308 dogs included, reported observations of 10 behavioural indicators of palatability at meal times reliably indicated significant effects of increased reports of appetitive behaviour by dogs on a raw meat diet, as opposed to a conventional diet. There was no consistent evidence of a difference between vegan diets and either the conventional or raw meat diets. For the 1,135 cats included, reported observations of 15 behavioural indicators indicated that diet made little difference to food-oriented behaviour. Based on these owner-reported behaviours, our results indicate that vegan pet foods are generally at least as palatable to dogs and cats as conventional meat or raw meat diets, and do not compromise their welfare, when other welfare determinants, such as nutritional requirements, are adequately provided.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Knight
- Centre for Animal Welfare, University of Winchester, Winchester, United Kingdom
- School of Environment and Science, Nathan Campus, Griffith University, Nathan, Queensland, Australia
| | - Liam Satchell
- Centre for Animal Welfare, University of Winchester, Winchester, United Kingdom
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Pereira S, Hernandez Salazar LT, Laska M. Taste-induced facial responses in black-handed spider monkeys (Ateles geoffroyi). Behav Processes 2021; 188:104417. [PMID: 33971248 DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2021.104417] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2020] [Revised: 05/03/2021] [Accepted: 05/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Taste-induced facial expressions are thought to reflect the hedonic valence of an animal's gustatory experience. We therefore assessed taste-induced facial responses in six black-handed spider monkeys (Ateles geoffroyi) to water, sucrose, caffeine, citric acid and aspartame, representing the taste qualities sweet, bitter, and sour, respectively. We decided not to include salty-tasting substances as the concentrations of such tastants found in the fruits consumed by spider monkeys are below their taste preference threshold. We found that the monkeys displayed significant differences in their facial responses between substances, with significantly higher frequencies of licking, sucking, closed eyes, tongue protruding, mouth gaping and lip smacking in response to sucrose, a presumably pleasant stimulus. The response to caffeine and citric acid, in contrast, yielded the lowest frequencies of these behaviors, but the highest frequency of withdrawals from the stimulus, suggesting these substances are perceived as unpleasant. Lip stretching, a newly described behavior, was performed significantly more often in response to caffeine than to any other substance, suggesting an association with the response to bitter taste. The facial response to the artificial sweetener aspartame was generally similar to the response to water, corroborating the notion that Platyrrhines may be unable to detect its sweetness. Overall, the present study supports the idea of similarity of taste-induced facial responses in non-hominoid primates and humans, suggesting these displays to be evolutionarily conserved across the primate order.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sofia Pereira
- IFM Biology, Linköping University, SE-581 83, Linköping, Sweden
| | | | - Matthias Laska
- IFM Biology, Linköping University, SE-581 83, Linköping, Sweden.
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Pekel AY, Mülazımoğlu SB, Acar N. Taste preferences and diet palatability in cats. JOURNAL OF APPLIED ANIMAL RESEARCH 2020. [DOI: 10.1080/09712119.2020.1786391] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ahmet Yavuz Pekel
- Department of Animal Nutrition and Nutritional Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Istanbul University-Cerrahpasa, Istanbul, Turkey
| | | | - Nüket Acar
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
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Clemens AM, Fernandez Delgado Y, Mehlman ML, Mishra P, Brecht M. Multisensory and Motor Representations in Rat Oral Somatosensory Cortex. Sci Rep 2018; 8:13556. [PMID: 30201995 PMCID: PMC6131144 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-31710-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2018] [Accepted: 08/10/2018] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
In mammals, a complex array of oral sensors assess the taste, temperature and haptic properties of food. Although the representation of taste has been extensively studied in the gustatory cortex, it is unclear how the somatosensory cortex encodes information about the properties of oral stimuli. Moreover, it is poorly understood how different oral sensory modalities are integrated and how sensory responses are translated into oral motor actions. To investigate whether oral somatosensory cortex processes food-related sensations and movements, we performed in vivo whole-cell recordings and motor mapping experiments in rats. Neurons in oral somatosensory cortex showed robust post-synaptic and sparse action potential responses to air puffs. Membrane potential showed that cold water evoked larger responses than room temperature or hot water. Most neurons showed no clear tuning of responses to bitter, sweet and neutral gustatory stimuli. Finally, motor mapping experiments with histological verification revealed an initiation of movements related to food consumption behavior, such as jaw opening and tongue protrusions. We conclude that somatosensory cortex: (i) provides a representation of the temperature of oral stimuli, (ii) does not systematically encode taste information and (iii) influences orofacial movements related to food consummatory behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ann M Clemens
- Neural Systems & Behavior, Marine Biological Laboratory, 7 MBL Street, Woods Hole, MA, 02543, USA
- Bernstein Center for Computational Neuroscience Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Philippstr. 13, Haus 6, 10115, Berlin, Germany
| | - Yohami Fernandez Delgado
- Neural Systems & Behavior, Marine Biological Laboratory, 7 MBL Street, Woods Hole, MA, 02543, USA
- Department of Biology, Wake Forest University, Winston-Salem, NC, 27106, USA
| | - Max L Mehlman
- Neural Systems & Behavior, Marine Biological Laboratory, 7 MBL Street, Woods Hole, MA, 02543, USA
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH, 03755, USA
| | - Poonam Mishra
- Neural Systems & Behavior, Marine Biological Laboratory, 7 MBL Street, Woods Hole, MA, 02543, USA
- Cellular Neurophysiology Laboratory, Molecular Biophysics Unit, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, 560012, India
| | - Michael Brecht
- Neural Systems & Behavior, Marine Biological Laboratory, 7 MBL Street, Woods Hole, MA, 02543, USA.
- Bernstein Center for Computational Neuroscience Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Philippstr. 13, Haus 6, 10115, Berlin, Germany.
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