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Berg P, Mappes T, Kujala MV. Olfaction in the canine cognitive and emotional processes: From behavioral and neural viewpoints to measurement possibilities. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2024; 157:105527. [PMID: 38160722 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2023.105527] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2023] [Revised: 12/22/2023] [Accepted: 12/27/2023] [Indexed: 01/03/2024]
Abstract
Domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) have excellent olfactory processing capabilities that are utilized widely in human society e.g., working with customs, police, and army; their scent detection is also used in guarding, hunting, mold-sniffing, searching for missing people or animals, and facilitating the life of the disabled. Sniffing and searching for odors is a natural, species-typical behavior and essential for the dog's welfare. While taking advantage of this canine ability widely, we understand its foundations and implications quite poorly. We can improve animal welfare by better understanding their olfactory world. In this review, we outline the olfactory processing of dogs in the nervous system, summarize the current knowledge of scent detection and differentiation; the effect of odors on the dogs' cognitive and emotional processes and the dog-human bond; and consider the methodological advancements that could be developed further to aid in our understanding of the canine world of odors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Päivi Berg
- Department of Biological and Environmental Science, Faculty of Mathematics and Science, University of Jyväskylä, PO BOX 35, FI-40014, Finland; Department of Psychology, Faculty of Education and Psychology, University of Jyväskylä, PO BOX 35, FI-40014, Finland,.
| | - Tapio Mappes
- Department of Biological and Environmental Science, Faculty of Mathematics and Science, University of Jyväskylä, PO BOX 35, FI-40014, Finland
| | - Miiamaaria V Kujala
- Department of Psychology, Faculty of Education and Psychology, University of Jyväskylä, PO BOX 35, FI-40014, Finland,; Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Helsinki, PO BOX 57, FI-00014, Finland; Department of Neuroscience and Biomedical Engineering, Aalto University, P.O. Box 11000, FI-00076 Aalto, Finland
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Novack LI, Schnell-Peskin L, Feuerbacher E, Fernandez EJ. The Science and Social Validity of Companion Animal Welfare: Functionally Defined Parameters in a Multidisciplinary Field. Animals (Basel) 2023; 13:1850. [PMID: 37889767 PMCID: PMC10251938 DOI: 10.3390/ani13111850] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2023] [Revised: 05/18/2023] [Accepted: 05/22/2023] [Indexed: 10/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Social validity refers to the social significance and acceptability of intervention goals, procedures, and outcomes. Animal practitioners, who are often guided by the principles of ABA, lack the benefit of verbal participants (at least with respect to target animals) with which to assess a client's needs and preferences. The study of a learner's welfare is useful for determining areas where intervention is needed or how the learner feels about an intervention that is underway. Three tenets of animal welfare measurement include physiological function, naturalistic behavior, and affect, where affect refers to private events, including emotions, which are a function of the same variables and contingencies responsible for controlling public behavior. The development of new technologies allows us to look "under the skin" and account for subjective experiences that can now be observed objectively. We introduce the reader to tools available from the animal welfare sciences for the objective measurement of social validity from the learner's perspective.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren I. Novack
- Department of Special Education, Hunter College, New York, NY 10022, USA;
| | | | - Erica Feuerbacher
- Department of Animal and Poultry Sciences, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24060, USA;
| | - Eduardo J. Fernandez
- School of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA 5005, Australia;
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Pennington E, Springer C, Albright J, Castel A. Evaluation of different methods of environmental enrichment to control anxiety in dogs undergoing hemilaminectomy after acute intervertebral disc extrusion: a randomized double-blinded study. Front Vet Sci 2023; 10:1124982. [PMID: 37323840 PMCID: PMC10267703 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2023.1124982] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2022] [Accepted: 04/21/2023] [Indexed: 06/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Objective The goal of this randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled study was to evaluate the effect of environmental enrichment (EE) on post-operative pain and anxiety in dogs following hemilaminectomy for acute intervertebral disc extrusion (IVDE). Methods Twenty healthy client-owned dogs undergoing a hemilaminectomy for IVDE with the same immediate post-operative analgesia protocol were randomly assigned to either the EE or standard environment (SE) group post-operatively. Recovery was achieved in an intensive care room (SE) or a separate quiet room (EE) equipped with white noise and classical music. EE dogs were also exposed to dog-appeasing pheromones, essential oil scents, and positive human interactions and were provided meals through food toys. A blinded evaluator assessed all dogs using the modified Glasgow Composite Pain Scale (mGCPS) on presentation and at several time points post-operatively. A rescue injection of the opioid methadone was given to the dogs with an mGCPS score of ≥5/20. Dogs received the antidepressant trazodone when anxious behaviors (5 mg/kg) were observed. The mGCPS scores, the latencies to receive the first methadone and trazodone doses and to eat the first meal, the number of methadone and trazodone doses, and the number of meals ingested in the first 24 and 48 h post-surgery were compared using Wilcoxon tests, and Benjamini-Hochberg correction for false discovery rate was applied. Results Although median mGCPS scores did not differ between the groups, compared to SE dogs (n = 10), EE dogs (n = 6) received trazodone earlier (p = 0.019), were administered fewer methadone injections at 24 h (p = 0.043), and ate more at 48 h post-surgery (p = 0.007). Therefore, EE and anti-anxiety medications could be beneficial in improving the wellbeing of dogs post-operatively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ellery Pennington
- Small Animal Clinical Sciences, The University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, United States
| | - Cary Springer
- Small Animal Clinical Sciences, The University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, United States
| | - Julia Albright
- Small Animal Clinical Sciences, The University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, United States
| | - Aude Castel
- College of Veterinary Medicine, The University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, United States
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Bertoni V, Regaiolli B, Cozzi A, Vaglio S, Spiezio C. Can an Enrichment Programme with Novel Manipulative and Scent Stimuli Change the Behaviour of Zoo-Housed European Wildcats? A Case Study. Animals (Basel) 2023; 13:1762. [PMID: 37889648 PMCID: PMC10252075 DOI: 10.3390/ani13111762] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2023] [Revised: 05/17/2023] [Accepted: 05/24/2023] [Indexed: 10/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Objects and semiochemicals may be used as enrichment in zoos. Domestic cats release Fraction 3 of Facial Pheromone (F3) by rubbing the muzzle to convey relational and territorial information. We aimed to evaluate whether and how the introduction of novel objects and scent stimuli could change the behaviour of one group (N = 5 subjects) of adult European wildcats (Felis silvestris silvestris) hosted at Parco Natura Viva-Garda Zoological Park, Italy. We assessed the behavioural changes following the introduction of novel objects (blocks and rags) and scent (synthetic F3) via observations over four experimental conditions (baseline, rags, F3 rags, blocks) using continuous focal animal sampling. Our results showed that no behavioural differences were found between the different conditions and the baseline, except for the condition with blocks when significantly less exploration was observed. Between conditions, wildcats performed significantly less individual explorative, affiliative, and agonistic behaviours, but more individual inactivity, when exposed to rags after F3 administration. Our findings suggest that the enrichment programme did not substantively affect the behaviour of the zoo-housed wildcats. However, the behavioural differences recorded between conditions suggest that, while novel objects introduced as visual stimuli (blocks) do not affect the wildcat behaviour, novel manipulative objects (rags) might impact their behaviour. Moreover, the changes in affiliative and agonistic behaviours displayed during the condition with exposure to rags sprayed with F3 suggest that such semiochemical could play an appeasement role within this study group.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valentina Bertoni
- Research and Conservation Department, Parco Natura Viva—Garda Zoological Park, 37012 Bussolengo, Italy; (V.B.); (B.R.); (C.S.)
- Department of Chemistry, Life Sciences and Environmental Sustainability, University of Parma, 43124 Parma, Italy
| | - Barbara Regaiolli
- Research and Conservation Department, Parco Natura Viva—Garda Zoological Park, 37012 Bussolengo, Italy; (V.B.); (B.R.); (C.S.)
- Department of Biological, Geological and Environmental Sciences, University of Bologna, 40126 Bologna, Italy
| | - Alessandro Cozzi
- Research Institute in Semiochemistry and Applied Ethology, 84400 Saint-Saturnin-lès-Apt, France;
| | - Stefano Vaglio
- Animal Behaviour and Wildlife Conservation Group, School of Life Sciences, University of Wolverhampton, Wolverhampton WV1 1LY, UK
- University College—The Castle, Durham University, Durham DH1 3RW, UK
| | - Caterina Spiezio
- Research and Conservation Department, Parco Natura Viva—Garda Zoological Park, 37012 Bussolengo, Italy; (V.B.); (B.R.); (C.S.)
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Elwell EJ, Vaglio S. The Scent Enriched Primate. Animals (Basel) 2023; 13:ani13101617. [PMID: 37238047 DOI: 10.3390/ani13101617] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2022] [Revised: 04/29/2023] [Accepted: 05/09/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Zoos worldwide play an important role in both in situ and ex situ conservation via efforts such as providing breeding programmes and reintroductions into the wild. Zoo populations are crucial as a buffer against extinction. However, a mismatch between the wild and zoo environments can lead to psychological as well as physiological health issues, such as stress, boredom, diabetes, and obesity. These problems, in turn, can impact the reproductive success of individuals. Consequently, some primate species have reduced breeding success when housed in zoos compared to their wild counterparts. To prevent the onset of behavioural, physiological, and cognitive negative effects and to continually improve the welfare of their animals, zoos widely implement different types of environmental enrichment. There are many forms enrichment can take, such as feeding, puzzles and training, but sensory enrichments, including implementing the use of scents, are currently understudied. Scent enrichments are less utilized despite multiple research studies showing that they may have positive effects on welfare for zoo-housed animal species, including non-human primates. Despite being traditionally considered to be microsmatic, various lines of evidence suggest that olfaction plays a larger role in primates than previously thought. This review therefore focuses on scent-based enrichment and the specifics of captive primates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily J Elwell
- Animal Behaviour & Wildlife Conservation Group, School of Life Sciences, University of Wolverhampton, Wolverhampton WV1 1LY, UK
| | - Stefano Vaglio
- Animal Behaviour & Wildlife Conservation Group, School of Life Sciences, University of Wolverhampton, Wolverhampton WV1 1LY, UK
- University College-The Castle, Durham University, Durham DH1 3RW, UK
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Rørvang MV, Schild SLA, Stenfelt J, Grut R, Gadri MA, Valros A, Nielsen BL, Wallenbeck A. Odor exploration behavior of the domestic pig ( Sus scrofa) as indicator of enriching properties of odors. Front Behav Neurosci 2023; 17:1173298. [PMID: 37214639 PMCID: PMC10196037 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2023.1173298] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2023] [Accepted: 04/13/2023] [Indexed: 05/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction and aim Although the sense of smell in pigs is widely recognized as being highly developed, surprisingly little is known about their sensory ability. This study aimed to (a) identify which non-social odors pigs were able to detect and distinguish between, (b) investigate the types of behavior expressed when exploring odors and, (c) compare pigs' responses to the different odors to evaluate their interest in the odors. Methods Growing pigs (N = 192) of crossbred commercial breeds were enrolled in the experiment (32-110 days of age, weighing 64.9 ± 10.1kg). Littermate pairs of opposite sex were tested in test pens with two odor insertion points in the pen wall, 55 cm apart. All pigs were habituated to the test pens and experimenters. Twelve odors were tested (eight essential oils and four synthetic perfumes) in groups of three odors, with each pig pair tested once with one set of three odors (all possible orders of the three odors were tested on 24 pairs in total), always against a non-odor control (demineralized water). In a test, each of the three odors were presented during three trials in a row (a total of 9 trials per test; trial duration: 1 min; inter-trial breaks: 2 min; total test duration: 25 min). Response variables included: duration of sniffing, feeding-related behavior (licking, biting and rooting), agonistic behavior (biting, displacement and pushing) and no approach of the odor or control, recorded throughout each 1-min odor presentation. Results All pigs sniffed an odor less when repeatedly presented (LMM: all odors P < 0.05), and significantly longer at the subsequent presentation of a new odor [LMM (3rd vs. 1st presentations): P < 0.001]. Specific odor and odor type (essential oil vs. synthetic perfume) had no significant effect on sniffing duration. Overall, feeding-related behavior and agonistic behavior were expressed significantly more when pigs explored the odor compared with the control insertion point (Paired t-tests: P < 0.001), and specific odor only affected the expression of feeding-related behavior. Conclusion Collectively, pigs express sniffing, agonistic, and feeding-related behavior when exploring odors, which suggests that pigs perceive odors of non-social origin as a resource. Odors may thus constitute relevant enrichment material for pigs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Vilain Rørvang
- Department of Biosystems and Technology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Lomma, Sweden
| | | | - Johanna Stenfelt
- Department of Biosystems and Technology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Lomma, Sweden
| | - Rebecca Grut
- Department of Biosystems and Technology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Lomma, Sweden
| | - Moses A. Gadri
- Department of Biosystems and Technology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Lomma, Sweden
| | - Anna Valros
- Department of Production Animal Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Research Centre for Animal Welfare, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Birte L. Nielsen
- Universities Federation for Animal Welfare (UFAW), Wheathampstead, United Kingdom
| | - Anna Wallenbeck
- Department of Animal Environment and Health, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Skara, Sweden
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Dare P, Strasser R. Ruff Morning? The Use of Environmental Enrichment during an Acute Stressor in Kenneled Shelter Dogs. Animals (Basel) 2023; 13:ani13091506. [PMID: 37174543 PMCID: PMC10177596 DOI: 10.3390/ani13091506] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2023] [Revised: 04/13/2023] [Accepted: 04/25/2023] [Indexed: 05/15/2023] Open
Abstract
The length of stay for some animals has increased with the recent reduction of animals euthanized in US shelters and animal control facilities. Research examining the effectiveness of different types of enrichment on buffering the effects of acute daily stressors in the shelter environment, such as kennel cleaning, is lacking. In addition, daily known stressors can result in undesirable behaviors that could lead to a need for euthanasia. Ways to effectively reduce the effects of daily stressors while optimizing strained resources is currently a high priority. In this study, we presented shelter dogs with food, tactile, and scent enrichment items to increase (arousing) or decrease (calming) activity during the daily stressor of morning kennel cleaning. We found that calming, rather than arousing, enrichment items were associated with body position scores indicative of lower stress in dogs, with calming scent enrichment (lavender) producing the most significant benefit. In contrast, items that showed the greatest reduction in vocalization were arousing (ball) compared to other arousing conditions. Our findings suggest that different unwanted behaviors in the kennel environment often associated with stress can be reduced using specific types of enrichment during a daily stressful event. Further, the results illustrate that enrichment items other than food might be more effective at decreasing certain undesirable behaviors. Overall, this study provides insight into how shelter workers might effectively use enrichment items during an unavoidable acute stressor. With many shelters keeping dogs longer, addressing events that might cause repeated stress in this population may indirectly help with adopting and lowering euthanasia rates due to unwanted behavior that develops due to repeated exposure to this necessary but acute stressor of morning cleaning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pamela Dare
- Neuroscience and Behavior, Psychology Department, University of Nebraska Omaha, Omaha, NE 68182, USA
| | - Rosemary Strasser
- Neuroscience and Behavior, Psychology Department, University of Nebraska Omaha, Omaha, NE 68182, USA
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Gastrophysics for pets: Tackling the growing problem of overweight/obese dogs. Appl Anim Behav Sci 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2022.105765] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Townsend L, Dixon L, Buckley L. Lead pulling as a welfare concern in pet dogs: What can veterinary professionals learn from current research? Vet Rec 2022; 191:e1627. [PMID: 35546517 DOI: 10.1002/vetr.1627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2020] [Revised: 01/23/2022] [Accepted: 03/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Veterinary professionals (VPs) are often the first source of advice for clients struggling with their dog's behaviour, and pulling on the lead is a commonplace undesirable behaviour VPs will encounter regularly in practice. Excluding bites, being pulled over while walking on a lead is the leading cause of non-fatal dog-related injuries in the UK. This narrative review investigates lead pulling as a welfare concern in pet dogs, highlighting aspects of the literature of particular interest to VPs. Lead pulling could negatively affect walk quality, frequency and duration, causing weight gain, while decreased environmental enrichment could trigger other undesirable behaviours. Aversive equipment to prevent lead pulling can cause pain, distress and injury, but even equipment considered humane can have welfare consequences. Punitive training methods could cause dogs stress, fear and anxiety and trigger aggressive behaviour. While these lead pulling outcomes are welfare concerns in themselves, they could also weaken dog-owner attachment, a risk factor in pet dog relinquishment. Given lead pulling could affect the welfare of patients in a VPs care, clinical implications and opportunities for client education are outlined. Educating clients on humane prevention and modification of lead pulling could make walks easier, safer and more enjoyable, with positive outcomes for clients, canine welfare and the practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lesley Townsend
- The Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Midlothian, Scotland, UK
| | - Laura Dixon
- Animal and Veterinary Science Research Group, Scotland's Rural College, Ayr, Scotland, UK
| | - Louise Buckley
- The Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Midlothian, Scotland, UK
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Cobb MC, Carter A, Lill A, Bennett PC. Perceived importance of specific kennel management practices for the provision of canine welfare. Appl Anim Behav Sci 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2022.105591] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
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Epstein J, Dowling-Guyer S, McCobb E, Glotzer C, Dodman NH. Addressing stress in dogs in shelters through a novel visual and auditory enrichment device. Appl Anim Behav Sci 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2021.105215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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Murtagh K, Farnworth MJ, Brilot BO. The scent of enrichment: Exploring the effect of odour and biological salience on behaviour during enrichment of kennelled dogs. Appl Anim Behav Sci 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2019.104917] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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