Donkey behaviour and cognition: A literature review

Nutritional management of hyperlipaemia in a jenny: a brief report

An adult jenny (5-years-old, non-pregnant) was presented to the Veterinary Teaching Hospital (VTH) of the University of Sassari, with a recent history of appetite loss, extreme underweight condition and reluctance to move. On physical inspection, emaciation [body condition score, BCS: 3/9], muscular waste [muscular condition score, MCS: 1/5], loose/running faeces [faecal score, FS: 2/8], and a general state of mild dehydration were found. Blood analyses outlined a general undernourishment condition [circulating albumins, ALB: 17.6 g/L (21.6-31.6 g/L)] with underlying systemic inflammatory profile and moderate increase in circulating enzymes to explore liver function [aspartate amino-transferase, AST: 657 u/L (279-430 u/L); alanine amino-transferase ALT: 60 u/L (5-14 u/L); gamma-glutamyl-transferase, γ-GT: 87 IU/L (14-69 IU/L); total bilirubin close to the upper limit, TB: 0.20 mg/dL(0.07-0.21 mg/dL)]and hyperlipaemia [TG: 8.70 mmol/L (0.60-2.87 mmol/L)], following fat depots mobilisation, with total cholesterol closed to the lower limit of the physiological range. Hyper-phosphataemia was linked to haemolytic anaemia [P:1.81 mmol/L (0.77-1.39 mmol/L) and red blood cells, RBC: 4.14 1012/L (4.40-7.10 1012)] aligned with the TB to the upper limit. On ultrasound abdominal imaging, enlarged and hyper-echogenic liver was observed. Based on the clinical evaluation, a condition of hepatic lipidosis was diagnosed, requiring dedicated nutritional treatment to solve the extreme emaciation along with the metabolic disorder in support of medical therapy. A two-step feeding protocol was planned to support treatments aiming at immediate re-hydration (Ringer lactate solution 2 ml/kg/8 h). The nutritional objectives were meant at first to restart the voluntary feed intake. Gradual increasing energy provision through a palatable hay-based diet was planned to cover one fourth of daily metabolizable energy requirement calculated on the expected metabolic weight, adjusted according to the daily intake of feed and clinical condition. At the conclusion of this first 7-day phase, circulating blood parameters were closer to the reference values and the BCS moved from 3 to 4 out of 9. Bowel motility was restored, and faecal score improved (4/8). In the second phase, allowance to pasture and a combination diet with compound mixed feed were designed. Within four weeks of starting the nutritional plan, blood parameters were re-established to reference values. The gradual feed provision calculated in this two-phase approach proved successful in support of the overall clinical improvement observed after four weeks of treatment, in a severely undernourished jenny with compromised liver functions.

Why Were Zebras Not Domesticated? A Review of Domesticability Traits and Tests of Their Role in Ungulate Domestications with Macroevolutionary Models

Since Darwin, many evolutionary and behavioral researchers have considered the role of phenotypic traits that favor the domestication of nonhuman animals. Among such proposed traits are a species' social structure, level of intra- and interspecific agonistic interactions, sociosexual behaviors, parental strategies, reaction to humans, habitat preference, dietary habits, developmental trajectories, and utility to humans. However, little to no comparative phylogenetic evidence exists concerning the importance of these attributes for the domestication of animals. Moreover, rather than considering domestication as a dichotomous event (non-domesticated vs. domesticated), humans and their potential domesticates encountered numerous socioecological challenges/obstacles during the domestication process before reaching the stage of full domestication. The present study explored the influence of adult body mass, gregariousness, dietary breadth, and reaction to humans on the domestication process of ungulates. The phylogenetic comparative model revealed that capture myopathy (CM), as a proxy for reaction to humans, negatively and significantly influenced the domestication process. The present paper also explored the evolution of CM in equine species in response to the presence of large carnivoran predators during the Pleistocene. Ecologies that preserved most of the large carnivoran predators of equine species also featured more equine taxa with CM (e.g., zebras), which were thus less suitable for domestication.

The behavior and welfare of neglected species: some examples from fish and mammals

Animal welfare is the state of an animal's body and mind and the level to which its requirements are satisfied. Animal welfare is affected by human decisions and actions. Numerous decisions concerning animals are driven by human desires to enhance their own lives, and some of these decisions may be influenced by self-interest or a strong emphasis on economic factors. How to assess the welfare state of animals is a central issue in animal welfare science. Two critical questions can be used to address animal welfare: first, is the animal healthy, and second, does the animal have what it needs? Both of these questions can potentially be answered using the study of animal behavior. The development of behavioral methodologies is crucial for evaluating welfare in contexts where concern for animal welfare is often highest, such as on intensive modern farms and sites where working animals are used. Herein, we discuss animal welfare by focusing on some of its major concepts and explanations. Later, to illustrate key aspects of animal welfare, we chose to examine the information that is available for some 'neglected' livestock species, which are commercially important on a global basis and found in large numbers: buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis), camels (Camelus dromedarius), donkeys (Equus asinus), mules (Equus asinus × Equus caballus), and lumpfish (Cyclopterus lumpus). We chose these species because there are major ongoing concerns about their welfare, and more research is required to help solve the various problems. Overall, there are strong imbalances in terms of the species that are usually studied in terms of animal welfare research, and we call for greater attention to those that have traditionally been neglected.

A Pilot Study on Behavioural and Physiological Indicators of Emotions in Donkeys

Recognizing animal emotions is critical to their welfare and can lead to a better relationship with humans and the environment, especially in a widespread species like the donkey, which is often prone to welfare issues. This study aims to assess the emotional response of donkeys through an operant conditioning task with two presumed different emotional contents. Specifically, a within-subject design including positive and negative conditions was conducted, collecting behavioural and physiological (heart rate variability and HRV) parameters. Facial expressions, postures, and movements were analysed by principal component analysis and behavioural diversity indexes (frequencies, activity budgets, richness, Shannon and Gini-Simpson). During the positive condition, both ears were held high and sideways (left: r = -0.793, p < 0.0001; right: r = -0.585, p = 0.011), while the ears were frontally erected (left: r = 0.924, p < 0.0001; right: r = 0.946, p < 0.0001) during the negative one. The latter was also associated with an increased tendency to walk (r = 0.709, p = 0.001), walk away (r = 0.578, p = 0.012), more frequent changes in the body position (V_{Body position} = 0, p = 0.022), and greater behavioural complexity (V_{Gini-Simpson Index} = 4, p = 0.027). As for HRV analysis, the root mean square of successive beat-to-beat differences (rMSSD) was significantly lower after the negative condition. These non-invasive parameters could be considered as possible indicators of donkeys' emotional state.

Donkey Heart Rate and Heart Rate Variability: A Scoping Review

Heart rate (HR) and heart rate variability (HRV) are commonly used physiological measures in animals. While several studies exist on horse HRV, less information is available for donkeys. This scoping review aims to understand the extent and type of published evidence on donkey HR and HRV, their clinical and research applications, the devices used, and the analysis performed. Only quantitative primary studies published in English were considered. Four different databases were queried through the Web of Science platform, with additional evidence identified by citation chasing. After a two-stage screening phase, data were extracted considering study and population characteristics, information on HR/HRV analysis, and applications. The majority of the 87 included articles (about 80%) concerned a sample size of up to 20 individuals and were published since 2011 (about 65%). Forty-one articles employed an electronic device for signal acquisition (mainly electrocardiographs and heart rate monitors), yet only two articles reported HRV parameters. The literature on donkey HRV is lacking, and this gap can be filled by gaining knowledge on donkey characteristics and finding useful tools for welfare assessment. Comparison with what is known about the horse allows a discussion of the technical and interpretative difficulties that can be encountered with donkeys.

The Lipidomics of Spermatozoa and Red Blood Cells Membrane Profile of Martina Franca Donkey: Preliminary Evaluation

Fatty acid-based lipidomic analysis has been widely used to evaluate health status in human medicine as well as in the veterinary field. In equine species, there has been a developing interest in fertility and sperm quality. Fatty acids, being the principal components of the membranes, play an active role in the regulation of the metabolic activities, and their role on spermiogenesis seems to be of great importance for the resulting quality of the sperm and, thus, fertility. With the application of widely used lipidomic techniques, the aim of this study was to evaluate: (a) the fatty acid content of the spermatozoa's membranes of 26 healthy male Martina Franca donkeys and its possible correlation with sperm parameters, and (b) the evaluation of the composition of the red blood cells' membrane. PUFA omega-6 are the principal components (40.38%) of the total PUFA content (47.79%) in both types of cells; however, DPA is the predominant one on the spermatozoa's membrane (27.57%) but is not present in the erythrocyte's membrane. Spermatozoa's motility (%) is positively correlated with stearic acid and EPA, and progressive motility (%), with oleic acid. These findings offer information on the composition of both types of cells' membranes in healthy male MF donkeys and reflect the metabolic transformations of the spermatozoa's membrane during the maturation period, providing a better perception of the role of fatty acids in sperm parameters and fertility.

Welfare of equidae during transport

In the framework of its Farm to Fork Strategy, the Commission is undertaking a comprehensive evaluation of animal welfare legislation. This opinion deals with the protection of horses and donkeys during transport. While the opinion focuses primarily on road transport of horses, there are specific sections dealing with the transport of horses on roll-on-roll-off ferries, horses transported by air and the transport of donkeys. In addition, the opinion covers welfare concerns in relation to a specific scenario identified by the European Commission related to the transport of horses on long journeys to slaughterhouses. Current practices related to transport of horses during the different stages (preparation, loading and unloading, transit and the journey breaks) are described. Overall, 13 welfare consequences were identified as being highly relevant for the welfare of horses during transport based on severity, duration and frequency of occurrence: gastro-enteric disorders, handling stress, heat stress, injuries, isolation stress, motion stress, prolonged hunger, prolonged thirst, respiratory disorders, resting problems, restriction of movement, sensory overstimulation and separation stress. These welfare consequences and their animal-based measures are described. A variety of hazards were identified related to factors such as inexperienced/untrained handlers, lack of horse training, structural deficiencies of vehicles/facilities, poor driving skills/conditions, horse separation/regrouping, unfavourable microclimatic and environmental conditions and poor husbandry practices. The opinion contains general and specific conclusions in relation to the different stages of transport. Recommendations to prevent hazards and correct or mitigate welfare consequences have been developed. Recommendations were also developed to define quantitative thresholds for microclimatic conditions within the means of transport and for space allowance. The development of welfare consequences over time was assessed in relation to maximum journey time.