Compositions, source apportionment and health risks assessment of fine particulate matter in naturally-ventilated schools

Source apportionment for indoor air pollution: Current challenges and future directions

Source apportionment (SA) for indoor air pollution is challenging due to the multiplicity and high variability of indoor sources, the complex physical and chemical processes that act as primary sources, sinks and sources of precursors that lead to secondary formation, and the interconnection with the outdoor environment. While the major indoor sources have been recognized, there is still a need for understanding the contribution of indoor versus outdoor-generated pollutants penetrating indoors, and how SA is influenced by the complex processes that occur in indoor environments. This paper reviews our current understanding of SA, through reviewing information on the SA techniques used, the targeted pollutants that have been studied to date, and their source apportionment, along with limitations or knowledge gaps in this research field. The majority (78 %) of SA studies to date focused on PM chemical composition/size distribution, with fewer studies covering organic compounds such as ketones, carbonyls and aldehydes. Regarding the SA method used, the majority of studies have used Positive Matrix Factorization (31 %), Principal Component Analysis (26 %) and Chemical Mass Balance (7 %) receptor models. The indoor PM sources identified to date include building materials and furniture emissions, indoor combustion-related sources, cooking-related sources, resuspension, cleaning and consumer products emissions, secondary-generated pollutants indoors and other products and activity-related emissions. The outdoor environment contribution to the measured pollutant indoors varies considerably (<10 %- 90 %) among the studies. Future challenges for this research area include the need for optimization of indoor air quality monitoring and data selection as well as the incorporation of physical and chemical processes in indoor air into source apportionment methodology.

Exposure of Malaysian Children to Air Pollutants over the School Day

Children are sensitive to air pollution and spend long hours in and around their schools, so the school day has an important impact on their overall exposure. This study of Kuala Lumpur, Selangor and its surroundings assesses exposure to PM2.5 and NO2, from travel, play and study over a typical school day. Most Malaysian children in urban areas are driven to school, so they probably experience peak NO2 concentrations in the drop-off and pick-up zones. Cyclists are likely to receive the greatest school travel exposure during their commute, but typically, the largest cumulative exposure occurs in classrooms through the long school day. Indoor concentrations tend to be high, as classrooms are well ventilated with ambient air. Exposure to PM2.5 is relatively evenly spread across Selangor, but NO2 exposure tends to be higher in areas with a high population density and heavy traffic. Despite this, ambient PM2.5 may be more critical and exceed guidelines as it is a particular problem during periods of widespread biomass burning. A thoughtful adjustment to school approach roads, design of playgrounds and building layout and maintenance may help minimise exposure.