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Saeed U, Mahmood R, Fatima B, Hussain D, Liaqat S, Imran M, Ali Chohan T, Saqib Khan M, Akhter S, Najam-Ul-Haq M. Novel thymohydroquinone gallate derivative loaded ligand modified quantum dots as pH-sensitive multi-modal theragnostic agent for cancer treatment. Eur J Pharm Biopharm 2024; 200:114312. [PMID: 38735345 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejpb.2024.114312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2024] [Revised: 04/14/2024] [Accepted: 05/04/2024] [Indexed: 05/14/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Nanomedicine, as the combination of radiopharmaceutical and nanocarrier (QDs), is developed for treating cancer. Gallic acid is antimutagenic, anti-inflammatory, and anti-carcinogenic. Typical retention time of gallic acid is approximately 4 to 8 h. To increase the retention time gallic acid is converted to prodrug by adding lipophilic moieties, encapsulating in lipophilic nanoparticles, or liposome formation. Similarly, thymoquinone is powerful antioxidant, anti-apoptotic, and anti-inflammatory effect, with reduced DNA damage. METHODS In this study, a hydrophilic drug (gallic acid) is chemically linked to the hydrophobic drug (thymohydroquinone) to overcome the limitations of co-delivery of drugs. Thymohydroquinone (THQG) as the combination of gallic acid (GA) and thymoquinone (THQ) is loaded onto the PEI functionalized antimonene quantum dots (AM-QDs) and characterized by FTIR, UV-visible spectroscopy, X-ray powder diffraction, Zeta sizer, SEM and AFM, in-vitro and in-vivo assay, and hemolysis. RESULTS The calculated drug loading efficiency is 90 %. Drug release study suggests the drug combination is pH sensitive and it can encounters acidic pH, releasing the drug from the nanocarrier. The drug and drug-loaded nanocarrier possesses low cytotoxicity and cell viability on MCF-7 and Cal-27 cell lines. The proposed drug delivery system is radiolabeled with Iodine-131 (131I) and Technetium (99mTc) and its deposition in various organs of rats' bodies is examined by SPECT-CT and gamma camera. Hemolytic activity of 2, 4, 6, and 8 μg/mL is 1.78, 4.16, 9.77, and 15.79 %, respectively, reflecting low levels of hemolysis. The system also sustains oxidative stress in cells and environment, decreasing ROS production to shield cells and keep them healthy. CONCLUSIONS The results of this study suggest that the proposed drug carrier system can be used as a multi-modal theragnostic agent in cancer treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ummama Saeed
- Department of Biochemistry, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, 60800, Pakistan
| | | | - Batool Fatima
- Department of Biochemistry, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, 60800, Pakistan.
| | - Dilshad Hussain
- HEJ Research Institute of Chemistry, International Center for Chemical and Biological Sciences, University of Karachi, Karachi 75270, Pakistan
| | - Sana Liaqat
- Department of Biochemistry, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, 60800, Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Imran
- Biochemistry Section, Institute of Chemical Sciences, University of Peshawar, Pakistan
| | - Tahir Ali Chohan
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Veterinary and Animal Science, Lahore, Pakistan
| | | | | | - Muhammad Najam-Ul-Haq
- Institute of Chemical Sciences, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, 60800, Pakistan.
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Yu H, Chen Q, Zheng M, Wang R, Wang H, Cheng L, Hu Y, Dai M, Du C, Luo W, Tan M, Cao Y, Guo Y, Ran H. Combination of MHI148 Targeted Photodynamic Therapy and STING Activation Inhibits Tumor Metastasis and Recurrence. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2024; 16:29672-29685. [PMID: 38813586 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.4c02528] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2024]
Abstract
Metastasis and recurrence are notable contributors to mortality associated with breast cancer. Although immunotherapy has shown promise in mitigating these risks after conventional treatments, its effectiveness remains constrained by significant challenges, such as impaired antigen presentation by dendritic cells (DCs) and inadequate T cell infiltration into tumor tissues. To address these limitations, we developed a multifunctional nanoparticle platform, termed GM@P, which consisted of a hydrophobic shell encapsulating the photosensitizer MHI148 and a hydrophilic core containing the STING agonist 2'3'-cGAMP. This design elicited robust type I interferon responses to activate antitumor immunity. The GM@P nanoparticles loaded with MHI148 specifically targeted breast cancer cells. Upon exposure to 808 nm laser irradiation, the MHI148-loaded nanoparticles produced toxic reactive oxygen species (ROS) to eradicate tumor cells through photodynamic therapy (PDT). Notably, PDT stimulated immunogenic cell death (ICD) to foster the potency of antitumor immune responses. Furthermore, the superior photoacoustic imaging (PAI) capabilities of MHI148 enabled the simultaneous visualization of diagnostic and therapeutic procedures. Collectively, our findings uncovered that the combination of PDT and STING activation facilitated a more conducive immune microenvironment, characterized by enhanced DC maturation, infiltration of CD8+ T cells, and proinflammatory cytokine release. This strategy stimulated local immune responses to augment systemic antitumor effects, offering a promising approach to suppress tumor growth, inhibit metastasis, and prevent recurrence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huilin Yu
- Department of Ultrasound, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400010, People's Republic of China
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Ultrasound Molecular Imaging & State Key Laboratory of Ultrasound in Medicine and Engineering, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400010, People's Republic of China
| | - Qiaoqi Chen
- Department of Ultrasound, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400010, People's Republic of China
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Ultrasound Molecular Imaging & State Key Laboratory of Ultrasound in Medicine and Engineering, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400010, People's Republic of China
| | - Min Zheng
- Department of Ultrasound, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400010, People's Republic of China
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Ultrasound Molecular Imaging & State Key Laboratory of Ultrasound in Medicine and Engineering, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400010, People's Republic of China
| | - Ruoyao Wang
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Ultrasound Molecular Imaging & State Key Laboratory of Ultrasound in Medicine and Engineering, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400010, People's Republic of China
- Department of Breast and Thyroid Surgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400010, People's Republic of China
| | - Haiyang Wang
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Ultrasound Molecular Imaging & State Key Laboratory of Ultrasound in Medicine and Engineering, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400010, People's Republic of China
- Department of Abdominal Wall, Hernia and Vascular Surgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400010, People's Republic of China
| | - Long Cheng
- Department of Ultrasound, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400010, People's Republic of China
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Ultrasound Molecular Imaging & State Key Laboratory of Ultrasound in Medicine and Engineering, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400010, People's Republic of China
| | - Yaqin Hu
- Department of Ultrasound, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400010, People's Republic of China
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Ultrasound Molecular Imaging & State Key Laboratory of Ultrasound in Medicine and Engineering, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400010, People's Republic of China
| | - Mingyuan Dai
- Department of Ultrasound, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400010, People's Republic of China
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Ultrasound Molecular Imaging & State Key Laboratory of Ultrasound in Medicine and Engineering, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400010, People's Republic of China
| | - Chier Du
- Department of Ultrasound, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400010, People's Republic of China
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Ultrasound Molecular Imaging & State Key Laboratory of Ultrasound in Medicine and Engineering, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400010, People's Republic of China
| | - Wenpei Luo
- Department of Ultrasound, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400010, People's Republic of China
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Ultrasound Molecular Imaging & State Key Laboratory of Ultrasound in Medicine and Engineering, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400010, People's Republic of China
| | - Mixiao Tan
- Department of Ultrasound, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400010, People's Republic of China
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Ultrasound Molecular Imaging & State Key Laboratory of Ultrasound in Medicine and Engineering, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400010, People's Republic of China
| | - Yang Cao
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Ultrasound Molecular Imaging & State Key Laboratory of Ultrasound in Medicine and Engineering, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400010, People's Republic of China
| | - Yuan Guo
- Department of Ultrasound, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400010, People's Republic of China
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Ultrasound Molecular Imaging & State Key Laboratory of Ultrasound in Medicine and Engineering, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400010, People's Republic of China
| | - Haitao Ran
- Department of Ultrasound, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400010, People's Republic of China
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Ultrasound Molecular Imaging & State Key Laboratory of Ultrasound in Medicine and Engineering, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400010, People's Republic of China
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Souto EB, Blanco-Llamero C, Krambeck K, Kiran NS, Yashaswini C, Postwala H, Severino P, Priefer R, Prajapati BG, Maheshwari R. Regulatory insights into nanomedicine and gene vaccine innovation: Safety assessment, challenges, and regulatory perspectives. Acta Biomater 2024; 180:1-17. [PMID: 38604468 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2024.04.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2023] [Revised: 03/21/2024] [Accepted: 04/07/2024] [Indexed: 04/13/2024]
Abstract
This analysis explores the principal regulatory concerns linked to nanomedicines and gene vaccines, including the complexities involved and the perspectives on how to navigate them. In the realm of nanomedicines, ensuring the safety of nanomaterials is paramount due to their unique characteristics and potential interactions with biological systems. Regulatory bodies are actively formulating guidelines and standards to assess the safety and risks associated with nanomedicine products, emphasizing the need for standardized characterization techniques to accurately gauge their safety and effectiveness. Regarding gene vaccines, regulatory frameworks must be tailored to address the distinct challenges posed by genetic interventions, necessitating special considerations in safety and efficacy evaluations, particularly concerning vector design, target specificity, and long-term patient monitoring. Ethical concerns such as patient autonomy, informed consent, and privacy also demand careful attention, alongside the intricate matter of intellectual property rights, which must be balanced against the imperative of ensuring widespread access to these life-saving treatments. Collaborative efforts among regulatory bodies, researchers, patent offices, and the private sector are essential to tackle these challenges effectively, with international cooperation being especially crucial given the global scope of nanomedicine and genetic vaccine development. Striking the right balance between safeguarding intellectual properties and promoting public health is vital for fostering innovation and ensuring equitable access to these ground-breaking technologies, underscoring the significance of addressing these regulatory hurdles to fully harness the potential benefits of nanomedicine and gene vaccines for enhancing healthcare outcomes on a global scale. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Several biomaterials are being proposed for the development of nanovaccines, from polymeric micelles, PLGA-/PEI-/PLL-nanoparticles, solid lipid nananoparticles, cationic lipoplexes, liposomes, hybrid materials, dendrimers, carbon nanotubes, hydrogels, to quantum dots. Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) have gained tremendous attention since the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approval of Pfizer and Moderna's COVID-19 vaccines, raising public awareness to the regulatory challenges associated with nanomedicines and genetic vaccines. This review provides insights into the current perspectives and potential strategies for addressing these issues, including clinical trials. By navigating these regulatory landscapes effectively, we can unlock the full potential of nanomedicine and genetic vaccines using a range of promising biomaterials towards improving healthcare outcomes worldwide.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eliana B Souto
- Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Technology, Department of Drug Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal.
| | - Cristina Blanco-Llamero
- Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Technology, Department of Drug Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal; Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Francisco de Vitoria (UFV), Ctra. Pozuelo-Majadahonda Km 1,800, 28223, Pozuelo de Alarcón, Madrid, Spain
| | - Karolline Krambeck
- Health Sciences School, Guarda Polytechnic Institute, Rua da Cadeia, 6300-035 Guarda, Portugal
| | | | - Chandrashekar Yashaswini
- Department of Biotechnology, School of Applied Sciences, REVA University, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India
| | - Humzah Postwala
- L. M. College of Pharmacy, Navrangpura, Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India
| | - Patricia Severino
- Institute of Research and Technology, University Tiradentes, Av. Murilo Dantas 300, Aracaju 49032-490, Sergipe, Brazil; Massachusetts College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences University, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Ronny Priefer
- Institute of Research and Technology, University Tiradentes, Av. Murilo Dantas 300, Aracaju 49032-490, Sergipe, Brazil
| | - Bhupendra Gopalbhai Prajapati
- Shree. S. K. Patel College of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, Ganpat University, Kherva, Gujarat 384012, India
| | - Rahul Maheshwari
- School of Pharmacy and Technology Management, SVKM's Narsee Monjee Institute of Management Studies (NMIMS) Deemed-to-University, Jadcherla, Hyderabad 509301, India
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Jiang Y, Nie D, Hu Z, Zhang C, Chang L, Li Y, Li Z, Hu W, Li H, Li S, Xu C, Liu S, Yang F, Wen W, Han D, Zhang K, Qin W. Macrophage-Derived Nanosponges Adsorb Cytokines and Modulate Macrophage Polarization for Renal Cell Carcinoma Immunotherapy. Adv Healthc Mater 2024:e2400303. [PMID: 38647150 DOI: 10.1002/adhm.202400303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2024] [Revised: 04/07/2024] [Indexed: 04/25/2024]
Abstract
Renal cell carcinoma (RCC) is a hot tumor infiltrated by large numbers of CD8+ T cells and is highly sensitive to immunotherapy. However, tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs), mainly M2 macrophages, tend to undermine the efficacy of immunotherapy and promote the progression of RCC. Here, macrophage-derived nanosponges are fabricated by M2 macrophage membrane-coated poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid)(PLGA), which could chemotaxis to the CXC and CC chemokine subfamily-enriched RCC microenvironment via corresponding membrane chemokine receptors. Subsequently, the nanosponges act like cytokine decoys to adsorb and neutralize broad-spectrum immunosuppressive cytokines such as colony stimulating factor-1(CSF-1), transforming growth factor-β(TGF-β), and Lnterleukin-10(IL-10), thereby reversing the polarization of M2-TAMs toward the pro-inflammatory M1 phenotype, and enhancing the anti-tumor effect of CD8+ T cells. To further enhance the polarization reprogramming efficiency of TAMs, DSPE-PEG-M2pep is conjugated on the surface of macrophage-derived nanosponges for specific recognition of M2-TAMs, and the toll like receptors 7/8(TLR7/8) agonist, R848, is encapsulated in these nanosponges to induce M1 polarization, which result in significant efficacy against RCC. In addition, these nanosponges exhibit undetectable biotoxicity, making them suitable for clinical applications. In summary, a promising and facile strategy is provided for immunomodulatory therapies, which are expected to be used in the treatment of tumors, autoimmune diseases, and inflammatory diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yao Jiang
- Department of Urology, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, 710032, China
- Department of Urology, Air Force 986 Hospital, Xi'an, 710054, China
| | - Disen Nie
- Department of Urology, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, 710032, China
| | - Zhihao Hu
- Department of Urology, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, 710032, China
| | - Chao Zhang
- Department of Urology, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, 710032, China
| | - Lingdi Chang
- Department of Urology, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, 710032, China
| | - Yu Li
- Department of Urology, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, 710032, China
| | - Zhengxuan Li
- Department of Urology, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, 710032, China
| | - Wei Hu
- Department of Urology, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, 710032, China
| | - Hongji Li
- Department of Urology, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, 710032, China
| | - Sikai Li
- Department of Urology, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, 710032, China
| | - Chao Xu
- Department of Urology, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, 710032, China
| | - Shaojie Liu
- Department of Urology, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, 710032, China
| | - Fa Yang
- Department of Urology, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, 710032, China
| | - Weihong Wen
- Institute of Medical Research, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an, 710072, China
| | - Donghui Han
- Department of Urology, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, 710032, China
| | - Keying Zhang
- Department of Urology, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, 710032, China
| | - Weijun Qin
- Department of Urology, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, 710032, China
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Guérin M, Lepeltier E. Nanomedicines via the pulmonary route: a promising strategy to reach the target? Drug Deliv Transl Res 2024:10.1007/s13346-024-01590-1. [PMID: 38587757 DOI: 10.1007/s13346-024-01590-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/22/2024] [Indexed: 04/09/2024]
Abstract
Over the past decades, research on nanomedicines as innovative tools in combating complex pathologies has increased tenfold, spanning fields from infectiology and ophthalmology to oncology. This process has further accelerated since the introduction of SARS-CoV-2 vaccines. When it comes to human health, nano-objects are designed to protect, transport, and improve the solubility of compounds to allow the delivery of active ingredients on their targets. Nanomedicines can be administered by different routes, such as intravenous, oral, intramuscular, or pulmonary routes. In the latter route, nanomedicines can be aerosolized or nebulized to reach the deep lung. This review summarizes existing nanomedicines proposed for inhalation administration, from their synthesis to their potential clinical use. It also outlines the respiratory organs, their structure, and particularities, with a specific emphasis on how these factors impact the administration of nanomedicines. Furthermore, the review addresses the organs accessible through pulmonary administration, along with various pathologies such as infections, genetic diseases, or cancer that can be addressed through inhaled nanotherapeutics. Finally, it examines the existing devices suitable for the aerosolization of nanomedicines and the range of nanomedicines in clinical development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mélina Guérin
- Univ Angers, INSERM, CNRS, MINT, SFR ICAT, 49000, Angers, France
| | - Elise Lepeltier
- Univ Angers, INSERM, CNRS, MINT, SFR ICAT, 49000, Angers, France.
- Institut Universitaire de France (IUF), Paris, France.
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Yuan T, Wang T, Zhang J, Ye F, Gu Z, Li Y, Xu J. Functional Polyphenol-Based Nanoparticles Boosted the Neuroprotective Effect of Riluzole for Acute Spinal Cord Injury. Biomacromolecules 2024; 25:2607-2620. [PMID: 38530873 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biomac.4c00173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/28/2024]
Abstract
Riluzole is commonly used as a neuroprotective agent for treating traumatic spinal cord injury (SCI), which works by blocking the influx of sodium and calcium ions and reducing glutamate activity. However, its clinical application is limited because of its poor solubility, short half-life, potential organ toxicity, and insufficient bioabilities toward upregulated inflammation and oxidative stress levels. To address this issue, epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), a natural polyphenol, was employed to fabricate nanoparticles (NPs) with riluzole to enhance the neuroprotective effects. The resulting NPs demonstrated good biocompatibility, excellent antioxidative properties, and promising regulation effects from the M1 to M2 macrophages. Furthermore, an in vivo SCI model was successfully established, and NPs could be obviously aggregated at the SCI site. More interestingly, excellent neuroprotective properties of NPs through regulating the levels of oxidative stress, inflammation, and ion channels could be fully demonstrated in vivo by RNA sequencing and sophisticated biochemistry evaluations. Together, the work provided new opportunities toward the design and fabrication of robust and multifunctional NPs for oxidative stress and inflammation-related diseases via biological integration of natural polyphenols and small-molecule drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taoyang Yuan
- Department of Neurosurgery, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Tianyou Wang
- College of Polymer Science and Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610065, China
| | - Jianhua Zhang
- College of Polymer Science and Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610065, China
| | - Feng Ye
- Department of Neurosurgery, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Zhipeng Gu
- College of Polymer Science and Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610065, China
| | - Yiwen Li
- College of Polymer Science and Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610065, China
| | - Jianguo Xu
- Department of Neurosurgery, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
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Liu J, Cabral H, Mi P. Nanocarriers address intracellular barriers for efficient drug delivery, overcoming drug resistance, subcellular targeting and controlled release. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2024; 207:115239. [PMID: 38437916 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2024.115239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2023] [Revised: 01/16/2024] [Accepted: 02/27/2024] [Indexed: 03/06/2024]
Abstract
The cellular barriers are major bottlenecks for bioactive compounds entering into cells to accomplish their biological functions, which limits their biomedical applications. Nanocarriers have demonstrated high potential and benefits for encapsulating bioactive compounds and efficiently delivering them into target cells by overcoming a cascade of intracellular barriers to achieve desirable therapeutic and diagnostic effects. In this review, we introduce the cellular barriers ahead of drug delivery and nanocarriers, as well as summarize recent advances and strategies of nanocarriers for increasing internalization with cells, promoting intracellular trafficking, overcoming drug resistance, targeting subcellular locations and controlled drug release. Lastly, the future perspectives of nanocarriers for intracellular drug delivery are discussed, which mainly focus on potential challenges and future directions. Our review presents an overview of intracellular drug delivery by nanocarriers, which may encourage the future development of nanocarriers for efficient and precision drug delivery into a wide range of cells and subcellular targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Liu
- Department of Radiology, Huaxi MR Research Center (HMRRC), State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, No.17 South Renmin Road, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, China
| | - Horacio Cabral
- Department of Bioengineering, Graduate School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8656, Japan.
| | - Peng Mi
- Department of Radiology, Huaxi MR Research Center (HMRRC), State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, No.17 South Renmin Road, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, China.
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An M, Zhang J, Zhang X, Zhao Y, Liu Y. Nanomedicine targeted anti-inflammatory therapy to deal with the 'crux' of rheumatoid arthritis. J Drug Target 2024; 32:381-392. [PMID: 38321981 DOI: 10.1080/1061186x.2024.2315475] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2023] [Accepted: 01/30/2024] [Indexed: 02/08/2024]
Abstract
Rheumatoid arthritis is a chronic and complex autoimmune disease that is marked by an inflammatory response, synovial hyperplasia, vascularisation, fascial formation, cartilage and bone destruction, which can lead to joint deformity and even loss of function, ultimately affecting a person's health and quality of life. Although the pathogenesis of RA is unclear, growing evidence suggests that inflammation-associated cells infiltrate joints, causing tissue damage, inflammation and pain. This disruption in the balance between host tolerance and immune homeostasis the progression of RA. Existing drug therapy and surgical treatments for RA are unable to completely cure the disease or reverse its accelerated progression. Therefore, the design and development of an appropriate and effective drug delivery system will substantially improve the therapeutic effect. In this review, by describing the inflammatory microenvironment of rheumatoid arthritis and the associated inflammatory cells, the progress of targeting strategies and applications of nanotechnology in the disease is summarised, which will be helpful in providing new ideas for the subsequent treatment of rheumatoid arthritis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Min An
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, China
| | - Juntao Zhang
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, China
| | - Xiaojie Zhang
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, China
| | - Yumeng Zhao
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, China
| | - Yanhua Liu
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, China
- Key Laboratory of Hui Ethnic Medicine Modernization, Ministry of Education, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, China
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Xu H, Kim D, Zhao YY, Kim C, Song G, Hu Q, Kang H, Yoon J. Remote Control of Energy Transformation-Based Cancer Imaging and Therapy. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2024:e2402806. [PMID: 38552256 DOI: 10.1002/adma.202402806] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2024] [Revised: 03/24/2024] [Indexed: 04/06/2024]
Abstract
Cancer treatment requires precise tumor-specific targeting at specific sites that allows for high-resolution diagnostic imaging and long-term patient-tailorable cancer therapy; while, minimizing side effects largely arising from non-targetability. This can be realized by harnessing exogenous remote stimuli, such as tissue-penetrative ultrasound, magnetic field, light, and radiation, that enable local activation for cancer imaging and therapy in deep tumors. A myriad of nanomedicines can be efficiently activated when the energy of such remote stimuli can be transformed into another type of energy. This review discusses the remote control of energy transformation for targetable, efficient, and long-term cancer imaging and therapy. Such ultrasonic, magnetic, photonic, radiative, and radioactive energy can be transformed into mechanical, thermal, chemical, and radiative energy to enable a variety of cancer imaging and treatment modalities. The current review article describes multimodal energy transformation where a serial cascade or multiple types of energy transformation occur. This review includes not only mechanical, chemical, hyperthermia, and radiation therapy but also emerging thermoelectric, pyroelectric, and piezoelectric therapies for cancer treatment. It also illustrates ultrasound, magnetic resonance, fluorescence, computed tomography, photoluminescence, and photoacoustic imaging-guided cancer therapies. It highlights afterglow imaging that can eliminate autofluorescence for sustained signal emission after the excitation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hai Xu
- Department of Chemistry and Nanoscience, Ewha Womans University, Seoul, 03760, Republic of Korea
| | - Dahee Kim
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Korea University, Seoul, 02841, Republic of Korea
| | - Yuan-Yuan Zhao
- Department of Chemistry and Nanoscience, Ewha Womans University, Seoul, 03760, Republic of Korea
| | - Chowon Kim
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Korea University, Seoul, 02841, Republic of Korea
| | - Guosheng Song
- State Key Laboratory of Chemo/Biosensing and Chemometrics, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha, 410082, China
| | - Qiongzheng Hu
- Qilu University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Sciences), Shandong Analysis and Test Center, Jinan, 250014, China
| | - Heemin Kang
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Korea University, Seoul, 02841, Republic of Korea
- College of Medicine, Korea University, Seoul, 02841, Republic of Korea
| | - Juyoung Yoon
- Department of Chemistry and Nanoscience, Ewha Womans University, Seoul, 03760, Republic of Korea
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10
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Hou X, Pan D, Zhong D, Gong Q, Luo K. Dendronized Polymer-Derived Nanomedicines for Mitochondrial Dynamics Regulation and Immune Modulation. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2024:e2400582. [PMID: 38477381 DOI: 10.1002/adma.202400582] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2024] [Revised: 02/29/2024] [Indexed: 03/14/2024]
Abstract
The effects of dendron side chains in polymeric conjugates on tumor penetration and antigen presentation are systematically examined. Three polymer-gemcitabine (Gem) conjugates (pG0-Gem, pG1-Gem, pG2-Gem) are designed and prepared. The pG2-Gem conjugate uniquely binds to the mitochondria of tumor cells, thus regulating mitochondrial dynamics. The interaction between the pG2-Gem conjugate and the mitochondria promotes great penetration and accumulation of the conjugate at the tumor site, resulting in pronounced antitumor effects in an animal model. Such encouraging therapeutic effects can be ascribed to immune modulation since MHC-1 antigen presentation is significantly enhanced due to mitochondrial fusion and mitochondrial metabolism alteration after pG2-Gem treatment. Crucially, the drug-free dendronized polymer, pG2, is identified to regulate mitochondrial dynamics, and the regulation is independent of the conjugated Gem. Furthermore, the combination of pG2-Gem with anti-PD-1 antibody results in a remarkable tumor clearance rate of 87.5% and a prolonged survival rate of over 150 days, demonstrating the potential of dendronized polymers as an innovative nanoplatform for metabolic modulation and synergistic tumor immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xingyu Hou
- Department of Radiology, Huaxi MR Research Center (HMRRC), Frontiers Science Center for Disease-Related Molecular Network, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Dayi Pan
- Department of Radiology, Huaxi MR Research Center (HMRRC), Frontiers Science Center for Disease-Related Molecular Network, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Dan Zhong
- Department of Radiology, Huaxi MR Research Center (HMRRC), Frontiers Science Center for Disease-Related Molecular Network, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Qiyong Gong
- Department of Radiology, Huaxi MR Research Center (HMRRC), Frontiers Science Center for Disease-Related Molecular Network, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China
- Functional and Molecular Imaging Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, and Research Unit of Psychoradiology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Chengdu, 610041, China
- Department of Radiology, West China Xiamen Hospital of Sichuan University, Xiamen, 361000, China
| | - Kui Luo
- Department of Radiology, Huaxi MR Research Center (HMRRC), Frontiers Science Center for Disease-Related Molecular Network, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China
- Functional and Molecular Imaging Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, and Research Unit of Psychoradiology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Chengdu, 610041, China
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11
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Sandbhor P, Palkar P, Bhat S, John G, Goda JS. Nanomedicine as a multimodal therapeutic paradigm against cancer: on the way forward in advancing precision therapy. NANOSCALE 2024. [PMID: 38470224 DOI: 10.1039/d3nr06131k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/13/2024]
Abstract
Recent years have witnessed dramatic improvements in nanotechnology-based cancer therapeutics, and it continues to evolve from the use of conventional therapies (chemotherapy, surgery, and radiotherapy) to increasingly multi-complex approaches incorporating thermal energy-based tumor ablation (e.g. magnetic hyperthermia and photothermal therapy), dynamic therapy (e.g. photodynamic therapy), gene therapy, sonodynamic therapy (e.g. ultrasound), immunotherapy, and more recently real-time treatment efficacy monitoring (e.g. theranostic MRI-sensitive nanoparticles). Unlike monotherapy, these multimodal therapies (bimodal, i.e., a combination of two therapies, and trimodal, i.e., a combination of more than two therapies) incorporating nanoplatforms have tremendous potential to improve the tumor tissue penetration and retention of therapeutic agents through selective active/passive targeting effects. These combinatorial therapies can correspondingly alleviate drug response against hypoxic/acidic and immunosuppressive tumor microenvironments and promote/induce tumor cell death through various multi-mechanisms such as apoptosis, autophagy, and reactive oxygen-based cytotoxicity, e.g., ferroptosis, etc. These multi-faced approaches such as targeting the tumor vasculature, neoangiogenic vessels, drug-resistant cancer stem cells (CSCs), preventing intra/extravasation to reduce metastatic growth, and modulation of antitumor immune responses work complementary to each other, enhancing treatment efficacy. In this review, we discuss recent advances in different nanotechnology-mediated synergistic/additive combination therapies, emphasizing their underlying mechanisms for improving cancer prognosis and survival outcomes. Additionally, significant challenges such as CSCs, hypoxia, immunosuppression, and distant/local metastasis associated with therapy resistance and tumor recurrences are reviewed. Furthermore, to improve the clinical precision of these multimodal nanoplatforms in cancer treatment, their successful bench-to-clinic translation with controlled and localized drug-release kinetics, maximizing the therapeutic window while addressing safety and regulatory concerns are discussed. As we advance further, exploiting these strategies in clinically more relevant models such as patient-derived xenografts and 3D organoids will pave the way for the application of precision therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Puja Sandbhor
- Institute for NanoBioTechnology, Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, 21218, USA.
| | - Pranoti Palkar
- Radiobiology, Department of Radiation Oncology & Homi Bhabha National Institute, Mumbai, 400012, India
| | - Sakshi Bhat
- Radiobiology, Department of Radiation Oncology & Homi Bhabha National Institute, Mumbai, 400012, India
| | - Geofrey John
- Radiobiology, Department of Radiation Oncology & Homi Bhabha National Institute, Mumbai, 400012, India
| | - Jayant S Goda
- Radiobiology, Department of Radiation Oncology & Homi Bhabha National Institute, Mumbai, 400012, India
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12
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Gu Z, Zhong D, Hou X, Wei X, Liu C, Zhang Y, Duan Z, Gu Z, Gong Q, Luo K. Unraveling Ros Conversion Through Enhanced Enzyme-Like Activity with Copper-Doped Cerium Oxide for Tumor Nanocatalytic Therapy. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2024; 11:e2307154. [PMID: 38161213 PMCID: PMC10953536 DOI: 10.1002/advs.202307154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2023] [Revised: 12/04/2023] [Indexed: 01/03/2024]
Abstract
Nanozyme catalytic therapy for cancer treatments has become one of the heated topics, and the therapeutic efficacy is highly correlated with their catalytic efficiency. In this work, three copper-doped CeO2 supports with various structures as well as crystal facets are developed to realize dual enzyme-mimic catalytic activities, that is superoxide dismutase (SOD) to reduce superoxide radicals to H2 O2 and peroxidase (POD) to transform H2 O2 to ∙OH. The wire-shaped CeO2 /Cu-W has the richest surface oxygen vacancies, and a low level of oxygen vacancy (Vo) formation energy, which allows for the elimination of intracellular reactive oxygen spieces (ROS) and continuous transformation to ∙OH with cascade reaction. Moreover, the wire-shaped CeO2 /Cu-W displays the highest toxic ∙OH production capacity in an acidic intracellular environment, inducing breast cancer cell death and pro-apoptotic autophagy. Therefore, wire-shaped CeO2 /Cu nanoparticles as an artificial enzyme system can have great potential in the intervention of intracellular ROS in cancer cells, achieving efficacious nanocatalytic therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhengxiang Gu
- Department of RadiologyHuaxi MR Research Center (HMRRC)Frontiers Science Center for Disease‐Related Molecular NetworkState Key Laboratory of BiotherapyWest China HospitalSichuan UniversityChengdu610041China
| | - Dan Zhong
- Department of RadiologyHuaxi MR Research Center (HMRRC)Frontiers Science Center for Disease‐Related Molecular NetworkState Key Laboratory of BiotherapyWest China HospitalSichuan UniversityChengdu610041China
| | - Xingyu Hou
- Department of RadiologyHuaxi MR Research Center (HMRRC)Frontiers Science Center for Disease‐Related Molecular NetworkState Key Laboratory of BiotherapyWest China HospitalSichuan UniversityChengdu610041China
| | - Xuelian Wei
- Department of RadiologyHuaxi MR Research Center (HMRRC)Frontiers Science Center for Disease‐Related Molecular NetworkState Key Laboratory of BiotherapyWest China HospitalSichuan UniversityChengdu610041China
| | - Caikun Liu
- National Engineering Research Center for BiomaterialsSichuan University29 Wangjiang RoadChengdu610064China
| | - Yechuan Zhang
- School of Chemistry and Materials ScienceNanjing Normal UniversityNanjing210023China
| | - Zhenyu Duan
- Department of RadiologyHuaxi MR Research Center (HMRRC)Frontiers Science Center for Disease‐Related Molecular NetworkState Key Laboratory of BiotherapyWest China HospitalSichuan UniversityChengdu610041China
| | - Zhongwei Gu
- Department of RadiologyHuaxi MR Research Center (HMRRC)Frontiers Science Center for Disease‐Related Molecular NetworkState Key Laboratory of BiotherapyWest China HospitalSichuan UniversityChengdu610041China
| | - Qiyong Gong
- Department of RadiologyHuaxi MR Research Center (HMRRC)Frontiers Science Center for Disease‐Related Molecular NetworkState Key Laboratory of BiotherapyWest China HospitalSichuan UniversityChengdu610041China
- Functional and molecular imaging Key Laboratory of Sichuan Provinceand Research Unit of PsychoradiologyChinese Academy of Medical SciencesChengdu610041China
| | - Kui Luo
- Department of RadiologyHuaxi MR Research Center (HMRRC)Frontiers Science Center for Disease‐Related Molecular NetworkState Key Laboratory of BiotherapyWest China HospitalSichuan UniversityChengdu610041China
- Functional and molecular imaging Key Laboratory of Sichuan Provinceand Research Unit of PsychoradiologyChinese Academy of Medical SciencesChengdu610041China
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13
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Pan D. Nanomedicine and nanobiotechnology in India. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS. NANOMEDICINE AND NANOBIOTECHNOLOGY 2024; 16:e1939. [PMID: 38456351 DOI: 10.1002/wnan.1939] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2023] [Accepted: 11/28/2023] [Indexed: 03/09/2024]
Abstract
Nanomedicine, an interdisciplinary field combining nanotechnology and medicine, has gained immense attention in recent years due to its potential in revolutionizing healthcare. India, being an emerging hub for scientific research and development, has made significant strides in nanomedicine research. This special issue is dedicated to the exciting research that are being conducted by the leading Indian scientists in various Indian institutions. This article is categorized under: Biology-Inspired Nanomaterials > Lipid-Based Structures Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Emerging Technologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dipanjan Pan
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, Pennsylvania, USA
- Department of Nuclear Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, Pennsylvania, USA
- Huck Institutes of the Life Sciences, Pennsylvania, USA
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, Pennsylvania, USA
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14
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Yu Q, Wu W. On the role of nanocarriers in oral drug delivery. Ther Deliv 2023; 14:741-744. [PMID: 38088095 DOI: 10.4155/tde-2023-0117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Qin Yu
- Shanghai Skin Disease Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200443, China
| | - Wei Wu
- Shanghai Skin Disease Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200443, China
- Center for Medical Research & Innovation, Shanghai Pudong Hospital, Fudan University Pudong Medical Centre, Shanghai, 201399, China
- Key Laboratory of Smart Drug Delivery of MOE, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai, 201203, China
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15
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Sterle Zorec B. Two-dimensional printing of nanoparticles as a promising therapeutic method for personalized drug administration. Pharm Dev Technol 2023; 28:826-842. [PMID: 37788221 DOI: 10.1080/10837450.2023.2264920] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2023] [Accepted: 09/26/2023] [Indexed: 10/05/2023]
Abstract
The necessity for personalized patient treatment has drastically increased since the contribution of genes to the differences in physiological and metabolic state of individuals have been exposed. Different approaches have been considered so far in order to satisfy all of the diversities in patient needs, yet none of them have been fully implemented thus far. In this framework, various types of 2D printing technologies have been identified to offer some potential solutions for personalized medication, which development is increasing rapidly. Accurate drug-on-demand deposition, the possibility of consuming multiple drug substances in one product and adjusting individual drug concentration are just some of the few benefits over existing bulk pharmaceuticals manufacture, which printing technologies brings. With inclusion of nanotechnology by printing nanoparticles from its dispersions some further opportunities such as controlled and stimuli-responsive drug release or targeted and dose depending on drug delivery were highlighted. Yet, there are still some challenges to be solved before such products can reach the pharmaceutical market. In those terms mostly chemical, physical as well as microbiological stability concerns should be answered, with which 2D printing technology could meet the treatment needs of every individual and fulfill some existing drawbacks of large-scale batch production of pharmaceuticals we possess today.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbara Sterle Zorec
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
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16
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Zhu Y, Yao Y, Kuang R, Chen Z, Du Z, Qu S. Global research trends of nanotechnology for pain management. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2023; 11:1249667. [PMID: 37701493 PMCID: PMC10494532 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2023.1249667] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2023] [Accepted: 08/14/2023] [Indexed: 09/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Background: Nanotechnology has been increasingly used in healthcare during recent years. However, the systematic evaluation of research on nanotechnology for pain management is lacking. In this study, we employed a bibliometric approach to examine the status of the research and global trends of nanotechnology in relation to pain management. Methods: We selected relevant papers published in the Web of Science Core Collection database between 2013 and 2022 using search terms related to nanotechnology and pain management. Subsequently, the following bibliographic information was collected: publication year, originating country/region, affiliated authors and institutions, published journal, references cited, citation frequency, and keywords. The bibliometric software programs VOSViewer and CiteSpace were employed to obtain bibliometric statistics and perform visual analysis. Results: A total of 2680 papers were retrieved. The number of publications in the field of nanotechnology for pain management has been increasing annually since 2013. China had the highest number of published papers, whereas the United States led in total citations. The Chinese Academy of Sciences was the most prolific institution, while the Tehran University of Medical Sciences had the highest overall citations. Furthermore, De Paula was the most prolific author. Papers associated with nanotechnology for pain management were mainly published in the International Journal of Pharmaceutics, Pharmaceutics, and the International Journal of Nanomedicine. Keyword analysis showed that "in-vitro" and "drug-delivery" appeared most frequently, with the top 10 common keywords comprising nanoparticles, pain, in-vitro, drug-delivery, delivery, release, inflammation, neuropathic pain, formulation, and expression. Lastly, the latest emerging keyword was "electrochemical sensor". Conclusion: Research on applying nanotechnology for pain management is growing steadily. China is the top country in terms of number of publications, with institutions under the Chinese Academy of Sciences making significant contributions to this field. "In-vitro" and "drug-delivery" are the current hotspots in this area, with "electrochemical sensor" as the latest topic at the research forefront. However, national and inter-institutional collaborations should be strengthened to enable patients with pain disorders to benefit from nanotechnology implementation in pain management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi Zhu
- Department of Anesthesiology, Hunan Children’s Hospital, Changsha, China
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