Retrieval practice improves item memory but not source memory in the context of stress

Lower constraint testing enhances the testing effect for some contextual details but not others

INTRODUCTION

Retrieval practice has been shown to be an effective means of learning new information, a memory phenomenon known as the testing effect or the retrieval practice effect. Some work suggests that the magnitude of the testing effect can be enhanced when the test used for retrieval practice uses fewer cues to retrieve previously studied information. It is unclear, however, whether such testing benefits extend to peripheral contextual details associated with studied materials (e.g., location where stimuli appear, font color in which items are presented, etc.). In this experiment, we examine both item memory (i.e., memory for the studied items) and context memory under conditions where the intervening test offers fewer cues (i.e., lower constraint) compared to more cues (higher constraint) to better understand item and context memory testing effects.

METHODS

Participants first studied word pairs presented in one of eight locations as well as in either red or green font color. Then, in the re-exposure phase, participants processed materials in two types of intervening tests (lower constraint and a higher constraint test) as well as in a restudy condition, before a final memory test.

RESULTS

For item memory, results showed that memory was better in the lower constraint testing condition compared to both the higher constraint testing condition as well as the restudy (control) condition. For context memory, results indicated improved memory for location context under lower constraint testing compared to both higher constraint testing and restudy conditions. There was no difference in memory, however, for color context across all conditions.

CONCLUSION

Overall, these findings suggest that providing fewer cues to aid retrieval in the intervening test can induce better memory for both items as well as some contextual details.

The Forward Testing Effect Is Resistant to Acute Psychosocial Retrieval Stress

The forward testing effect refers to the finding that testing of previously studied information improves memory for subsequently studied newer information. Recent research showed that the effect is immune to acute psychosocial encoding/retrieval stress, i.e., stress that is induced before initial encoding. The present study investigated whether the forward testing effect is also robust to acute psychosocial retrieval stress, i.e., stress that is induced after encoding but before retrieval of the critical item list. Participants (N = 128) studied three lists of words in anticipation of a final cumulative recall test. Participants were tested immediately on Lists 1 and 2 (testing condition) or restudied the two lists after initial study (restudy condition). After study of the critical List 3, psychosocial stress was induced in half of the participants (stress group), whereas no stress was induced in the other half (control group). The Trier Social Stress Test for Groups (TSST-G) was used for stress induction. Salivary cortisol, alpha amylase, and subjective stress were repeatedly measured. The results of the criterion test showed a generally detrimental effect of psychosocial retrieval stress on List 3 recall. Importantly, the forward testing effect was unaffected by retrieval stress. The findings are discussed with respect to current theories of the forward testing effect.

Professional discrepancies of doctors and lawyers in episodic memory: Modulations of professional morality and warning

Past investigations have consistently demonstrated the robust stereotype-consistent effect in the circumstance of source memory but not always in item memory, including the case of professional stereotype. However, it remains unclear whether the effect still occurs in professional stereotype when considering the attributes of negative (or bad) or positive (or good); besides, it has not been concerned about how does warning work in remembering the professional stereotypical stimuli. The current experiments aimed to address these issues by adopting descriptive sentences as stimuli, which were related or unrelated to doctors and lawyers, and with different professional moral valences (negative, neutral, or positive). Item memory and source memory were tested successively. Experiment 1 without the explicit warning confirmed the reliable stereotype-consistent effect solely in source memory; the modulation of professional morality on memory behaved differently between doctor and lawyer, that is, negativity bias versus positivity bias. When giving an explicit warning (Experiment 2), the stereotype-consistent effect attenuated in the lawyer case, and the occurrence of negativity bias was sensitive to the memory task. Thus, our findings further reinforce the dual-process model; both professional morality and warning work in memory of professional stereotype, depending upon the nature of the profession, the concerned memory task, and also the presence of warning. Implications are made for future research to consider more perspectives.

The Forward Testing Effect is Immune to Acute Psychosocial Encoding/Retrieval Stress

The forward testing effect (FTE) refers to the finding that testing of previously studied information enhances memory for subsequently studied other information. Previous research demonstrated that the FTE is a robust phenomenon that generalizes across different materials and populations. The present study examined whether the FTE is robust under acute psychosocial encoding/retrieval stress. In each of two experimental conditions, participants studied three item lists in anticipation of final cumulative recall testing. In the testing condition, participants were tested immediately on lists 1 and 2, whereas in the restudy condition, they restudied lists 1 and 2. In both conditions, participants were tested immediately on list 3. Acute psychosocial stress was induced in participants prior to the encoding of item lists using the Trier social stress test for groups protocol. No stress was induced in a control group. Salivary cortisol, alpha amylase, and subjective stress were measured repeatedly to capture the biopsychological stress response. The results showed a significant FTE on list 3 recall, that is, testing of lists 1 and 2 enhanced the recall of list 3. No significant effect of stress on the FTE was observed, suggesting that the FTE is robust under acute psychosocial encoding/retrieval stress. The discussion provides suggestions for future research directions.