Neurocognitive development of flanker and Stroop interference control: A near-infrared spectroscopy study

Effects of Cognitive and Physical Load of Acute Exercise on Inhibitory Control and Prefrontal Cortex Hemodynamics in Children

INTRODUCTION

Evidence suggests that acute exercise benefits inhibitory control, but it remains unclear how physical and cognitive load influence this ability in preadolescent children, when faced with different types of distractors. We examined their moderating effects along with changes in prefrontal cortex hemodynamics.

METHODS

Using a crossover design, 29 participants completed 10 min of exercise (with an interactive training wall) at 1) low physical and low cognitive load, 2) low physical and high cognitive load, 3) high physical and low cognitive load, and 4) high physical and high cognitive load in a randomized order. Before and after each condition, they performed a Standard and Affective Stroop task. During both tasks, the lateral oxygenation difference in the prefrontal cortex was measured by using functional near-infrared spectroscopy.

RESULTS

For the Standard Stroop task, there was no effect of physical and cognitive load on performance. In contrast, exercise with low compared with high cognitive load was associated with a greater reduction of reaction time and increase in accuracy on the Affective Stroop task. This was accompanied by a decrease in lateral oxygenation difference on trials with low inhibitory control demands.

CONCLUSIONS

Acute exercise with low compared with high cognitive demand benefits the ability to resolve emotional conflict, but the control over inhibition of nonemotional information remains unaffected. This effect of cognitive load is complemented by an increased efficiency of the left prefrontal cortex, when no emotional conflict resolution is required.

Physical training improves inhibitory control in children aged 7-12 years: An fNIRS study

Physical exercise plays a crucial role in the development of cognition and brain functions in children. Inhibitory control is an advanced cognition that affects children's life and learning. In the current study, the relationship between physical training and inhibitory control was explored. In total, 80 children were randomly but equally assigned to the experimental and control groups. The experimental group underwent physical training (volleyball) for 60 min, thrice a week for 12 weeks. In contrast, the control group did not undergo any training and continued with their daily routines. The flanker task and functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) were employed to investigate the effects of 12-week physical training on inhibitory control and changes in the oxy-Hb concentration in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) during the task. The behavioral results revealed that the experimental group performed better on the flanker task (e.g., shorter response time [F(1,74) = 18.420, p < 0.001, ηp2 = 0.199] and higher accuracy [F(1,74) = 15.00, p < 0.001, ηp2 = 0.169] than the control group. The oxy-Hb concentration in the right dorsolateral PFC (R-DLPFC) was higher and the activation level of this region was higher during the flanker task [F(1,74) = 6.216, p < 0.05, ηp2 = 0.077]. Moreover, the McNemar test revealed improved cognitive performance in response time or accuracy and R-DLPFC activation induced by physical exercise coincided significantly (χ2 = 5.49, p < 0.05; χ2 = 6.081, p < 0.05). These findings suggest that the R-DLPFC is likely the neural substrate for improved cognitive performance elicited by 12-week physical training.

Cortical hemodynamics and inhibitory processing in preadolescent children with low and high physical activity

Background

Preadolescent children undergo developmental changes in inhibitory control. Maintenance of high levels of moderate-to-vigorous-intensity physical activity (MVPA) has been suggested to promote its maturation. We compared inhibitory control between children with low and high MVPA as well as their inhibitory processing stream and changes in cortical hemodynamics.

Method

109 participants aged 10 to 13 years wore accelerometers over 7 days. Those with MVPA levels of 30 min/d or less and 60 min/d or more further performed a computerized Stroop Color-Word task. Electroencephalography and functional near-infrared spectroscopy were used to record changes in inhibitory processing and cortical hemodynamics, respectively.

Results

An interaction of MVPA group and sex indicated better interference in highly-active boys, but the opposite pattern in girls. Independent from sex, the high compared to low MVPA group showed greater P300 and PSW amplitudes, whereas no group differences were found for N200, N450, and changes in cortical hemodynamics.

Conclusion

Children with high MVPA differ from their less-active peers by a distinct inhibitory processing profile, which is characterized by altered allocation of attentional resources and conflict resolution. However, these alterations do not necessarily translate into better performance, especially since MVPA is linked with higher inhibitory control in boys only.

The use of functional near-infrared spectroscopy in tracking neurodevelopmental trajectories in infants and children with or without developmental disorders: a systematic review

Understanding the neurodevelopmental trajectories of infants and children is essential for the early identification of neurodevelopmental disorders, elucidating the neural mechanisms underlying the disorders, and predicting developmental outcomes. Functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (fNIRS) is an infant-friendly neuroimaging tool that enables the monitoring of cerebral hemodynamic responses from the neonatal period. Due to its advantages, fNIRS is a promising tool for studying neurodevelopmental trajectories. Although many researchers have used fNIRS to study neural development in infants/children and have reported important findings, there is a lack of synthesized evidence for using fNIRS to track neurodevelopmental trajectories in infants and children. The current systematic review summarized 84 original fNIRS studies and showed a general trend of age-related increase in network integration and segregation, interhemispheric connectivity, leftward asymmetry, and differences in phase oscillation during resting-state. Moreover, typically developing infants and children showed a developmental trend of more localized and differentiated activation when processing visual, auditory, and tactile information, suggesting more mature and specialized sensory networks. Later in life, children switched from recruiting bilateral auditory to a left-lateralized language circuit when processing social auditory and language information and showed increased prefrontal activation during executive functioning tasks. The developmental trajectories are different in children with developmental disorders, with infants at risk for autism spectrum disorder showing initial overconnectivity followed by underconnectivity during resting-state; and children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorders showing lower prefrontal cortex activation during executive functioning tasks compared to their typically developing peers throughout childhood. The current systematic review supports the use of fNIRS in tracking the neurodevelopmental trajectories in children. More longitudinal studies are needed to validate the neurodevelopmental trajectories and explore the use of these neurobiomarkers for the early identification of developmental disorders and in tracking the effects of interventions.

Frontal two-electrode transcranial direct current stimulation protocols may not affect performance on a combined flanker Go/No-Go task

Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) has been tested to modulate cognitive control or response inhibition using various electrode montages. However, electrode montages and current polarities have not been systematically compared when examining tDCS effects on cognitive control and response inhibition. In this randomized, sham-controlled study, 38 healthy volunteers were randomly grouped into receiving one session of sham, anodal, and cathodal each in an electrode montage that targeted either the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) or the fronto-medial (FM) region. Participants performed a combined flanker Go/No-Go task during stimulation. No effect of tDCS was found in the DLPFC and FM groups neither using anodal nor cathodal stimulation. No major adverse effects of tDCS were identified using either montage or stimulation type and the two groups did not differ in terms of the reported sensations. The present study suggests that single-session tDCS delivered in two two-electrode montages might not affect cognitive control or response inhibition, despite using widely popular stimulation parameters. This is in line with the heterogeneous findings in the field and calls for further systematic research to exclude less reliable methods from those with more pronounced effects, identify the determinants of responsiveness, and develop optimal ways to utilize this technique.

Non-Invasive Mapping of Cerebral Autoregulation Using Near-Infrared Spectroscopy: A Study Protocol

The ability of cerebral vessels to maintain a fairly constant cerebral blood flow is referred to as cerebral autoregulation (CA). Using near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) paired with arterial blood pressure (ABP) monitoring, continuous CA can be assessed non-invasively. Recent advances in NIRS technology can help improve the understanding of continuously assessed CA in humans with high spatial and temporal resolutions. We describe a study protocol for creating a new wearable and portable imaging system that derives CA maps of the entire brain with high sampling rates at each point. The first objective is to evaluate the CA mapping system's performance during various perturbations using a block-trial design in 50 healthy volunteers. The second objective is to explore the impact of age and sex on regional disparities in CA using static recording and perturbation testing in 200 healthy volunteers. Using entirely non-invasive NIRS and ABP systems, we hope to prove the feasibility of deriving CA maps of the entire brain with high spatial and temporal resolutions. The development of this imaging system could potentially revolutionize the way we monitor brain physiology in humans since it would allow for an entirely non-invasive continuous assessment of regional differences in CA and improve our understanding of the impact of the aging process on cerebral vessel function.

Context-specific effects of threatening faces on alerting, orienting, and executive control: A fNIRS study

Real-world threatening faces possess both useful and irrelevant attributes with respect to the current goal. How these attributes interact and affect attention, which comprises at least three processes hypothesized to engage the frontal lobes (alerting, orienting, and executive control), remains poorly understood. Here, the neurocognitive effects of threatening facial expressions on the three processes of attention were examined through the emotional Attention Network Test (ANT) and functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS). Forty-seven (20M, 27F) young adults performed a blocked version of the arrow flanker task with neutral and angry facial cues applied in three cue conditions (no, center, and spatial). Hemodynamic changes occurring in participants' frontal cortices during task performance were recorded by multichannel fNIRS. Behavioral results indicated that alerting, orienting, and executive control processes existed in both the neutral and angry conditions. However, depending on the context, angry facial cues affected these processes differently compared with neutral facial cues. Specifically, the angry face disrupted the classical decrease in reaction time from the no-cue to center-cue condition specifically during the congruent condition. Additionally, fNIRS results revealed significant frontal cortical activation during the incongruent vs. congruent task; neither cue nor emotion significantly affected frontal activation. Thus, the findings suggest that the angry face affects all three attentional processes while exerting context-specific effects on attention. They also imply that during the ANT, the frontal cortex is most involved in executive control. The present study offers essential insights into how various attributes of threatening faces interact and alter attention.

Reduced left dorsolateral prefrontal activation in problematic smartphone users during the Stroop task: An fNIRS study

Introduction

The widespread use of smartphones has triggered concern over problematic smartphone use (PSPU), as well as the need to elucidate its underlying mechanisms. However, the correlation between cortical activation and deficient inhibitory control in PSPU remains unclear.

Methods

This study examined inhibitory control using the color-word matching Stroop task and its cortical-activation responses using functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) in college students with PSPU (n = 56) compared with a control group (n = 54).

Results

At the behavioral level, Stroop interference, coupled with reaction time, was significantly greater in the PSPU group than in the control group. Changes in oxygenated hemoglobin (Oxy-Hb) signals associated with Stroop interference were significantly increased in the left ventrolateral prefrontal cortex, left frontopolar area, and bilateral dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC). Moreover, the PSPU group had lower Oxy-Hb signal changes associated with Stroop interference in the left-DLPFC, relative to controls.

Discussion

These results provide first behavioral and neuroscientific evidence using event-related fNIRS method, to our knowledge, that college students with PSPU may have a deficit in inhibitory control associated with lower cortical activation in the left-DLPFC.

Language, ambiguity, and executive functions in adolescents' theory of mind

Executive functions' (EF) role in adolescents' advanced theory of mind (aToM) was examined. In Study 1, adolescents (N = 189 in 2017, M_age  = 13.1 years, 55.6% female from racially/ethnically diverse schools) completed the Flexibility and Automaticity of Social Cognition task (FASC), and shifting and inhibition measures. Study 2 (N = 289 in 2018 and 2019, M_age  = 15.7 years, 59.9% female, 56.4% Hispanic/Latino) replicated Study 1 in older adolescents using automated scoring of FASC flexibility. Flexibility of social cognition varied based on ambiguity and language use; automaticity of social cognition varied by ambiguity. The role of EF was less conclusive; shifting and inhibition predicted some flexibility and automaticity measures. Ambiguity, language, and EF, particularly shifting, influence aToM into adolescence.

The mediating role of inhibitory control in the relationship between prefrontal cortex hemodynamics and exercise performance in adults with overweight or obesity

Physical inactivity has been suggested to impair physical performance, cognitive functions and facilitate weight gain. One hypothesis is that long periods of physical inactivity could impair oxygen delivery to the prefrontal cortex (PFC), impairing one's cognitive ability to inhibit unhealthy automated behaviors and, therefore, reduce exercise tolerance. The present study sought to further understand the relationship among PFC hemodynamics, inhibitory control, and exercise tolerance in individuals with low physical fitness levels who are overweight or obese. Thirty-four participants were asked to perform a series of inhibitory control tests (i.e., Stroop task) in one testing session and complete an incremental cycling exercise test with hemodynamic fluctuations of the PFC measured with functional near-infrared spectroscopy in another session. Our results indicate that exercise performance varied with PFC oxygenation. We also found that inhibitory control played a key role mediating the relationship between PFC oxygenation and exercise performance, suggesting that the cognitive ability to inhibit automated responses has an impact on exercise behavior in adults with overweight and obesity.

Eye-Tracking Training Improves Inhibitory Control in Children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder

Disinhibition is a common sign among children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). The present study examined the effect of computerized eye-tracking training to improve inhibitory control in ADHD children. Thirty-two ADHD children (mean age = 8.4 years) were recruited. Half of the participants underwent 240 min of eye-tracking training over two weeks (i.e., experimental group), while the other half did not receive any training (i.e., control group). After training, the experimental group exhibited significant improvements in neuropsychological tests of inhibition, such as faster reaction time in the incongruent condition of the Flanker test, more unique designs in the Category Fluency and Five-Point Tests, and a faster completion time in Trail 2 of the Children's Color Trail Test. The control group did not show significant changes in any of these tests. Our findings support the use of eye-tracking training to improve the inhibitory control of ADHD children.

An optical window into brain function in children and adolescents: A systematic review of functional near-infrared spectroscopy studies

Despite decades of research, our understanding of functional brain development throughout childhood and adolescence remains limited due to the challenges posed by certain neuroimaging modalities. Recently, there has been a growing interest in using functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) to elucidate the neural basis of cognitive and socioemotional development and identify the factors shaping these types of development. This article, focusing on the fNIRS methods, presents an up-to-date systematic review of fNIRS studies addressing the effects of age and other factors on brain functions in children and adolescents. Literature searches were conducted using PubMed and PsycINFO. A total of 79 fNIRS studies involving healthy individuals aged 3-17 years that were published in peer-reviewed journals in English before July 2020 were included. Six methodological aspects of these studies were evaluated, including the research design, experimental paradigm, fNIRS measurement, data preprocessing, statistical analysis, and result presentation. The risk of bias, such as selective outcome reporting, was assessed throughout the review. A qualitative synthesis of study findings in terms of the factor effects on changes in oxyhemoglobin concentration was also performed. This unregistered review highlights the strengths and limitations of the existing literature and suggests directions for future research to facilitate the improved use of fNIRS in developmental cognitive neuroscience research.