Low temperature FTIR spectroscopy provides new insights in the pH-dependent proton pathway of proteorhodopsin

Rhodopsins: An Excitingly Versatile Protein Species for Research, Development and Creative Engineering

The first member and eponym of the rhodopsin family was identified in the 1930s as the visual pigment of the rod photoreceptor cell in the animal retina. It was found to be a membrane protein, owing its photosensitivity to the presence of a covalently bound chromophoric group. This group, derived from vitamin A, was appropriately dubbed retinal. In the 1970s a microbial counterpart of this species was discovered in an archaeon, being a membrane protein also harbouring retinal as a chromophore, and named bacteriorhodopsin. Since their discovery a photogenic panorama unfolded, where up to date new members and subspecies with a variety of light-driven functionality have been added to this family. The animal branch, meanwhile categorized as type-2 rhodopsins, turned out to form a large subclass in the superfamily of G protein-coupled receptors and are essential to multiple elements of light-dependent animal sensory physiology. The microbial branch, the type-1 rhodopsins, largely function as light-driven ion pumps or channels, but also contain sensory-active and enzyme-sustaining subspecies. In this review we will follow the development of this exciting membrane protein panorama in a representative number of highlights and will present a prospect of their extraordinary future potential.

Photocycle-dependent conformational changes in the proteorhodopsin cross-protomer Asp-His-Trp triad revealed by DNP-enhanced MAS-NMR

Proteorhodopsin (PR) is a highly abundant, pentameric, light-driven proton pump. Proton transfer is linked to a canonical photocycle typical for microbial ion pumps. Although the PR monomer is able to undergo a full photocycle, the question arises whether the pentameric complex formed in the membrane via specific cross-protomer interactions plays a role in its functional mechanism. Here, we use dynamic nuclear polarization (DNP)-enhanced solid-state magic-angle spinning (MAS) NMR in combination with light-induced cryotrapping of photointermediates to address this topic. The highly conserved residue H75 is located at the protomer interface. We show that it switches from the (τ)- to the (π)-tautomer and changes its ring orientation in the M state. It couples to W34 across the oligomerization interface based on specific His/Trp ring orientations while stabilizing the pK_a of the primary proton acceptor D97 within the same protomer. We further show that specific W34 mutations have a drastic effect on D97 and proton transfer mediated through H75. The residue H75 defines a cross-protomer Asp-His-Trp triad, which potentially serves as a pH-dependent regulator for proton transfer. Our data represent light-dependent, functionally relevant cross talk between protomers of a microbial rhodopsin homo-oligomer.

Comparative responses of diazotrophic abundance and community structure to the chemical composition of paddy soil

Diazotrophy is considered as one of the most crucial and dynamic phenomena in the rice field and also a major source of nitrogen input. The objective of this study was to elucidate possible interactions between diverse and dominant diazotrophic bacterial community and organic carbon composition of the paddy soil. Our results suggest that most abundantly found diazotrophs belong to a proteobacteria group and uncultured bacterial forms. A gene abundance study clearly showed significantly higher diazotrophic abundance (P < 0.01) at Chandauli (CHN) as compared to Varanasi (VNS) and Ghazipur (GHJ) districts of Eastern Uttar Pradesh, India, with nitrogenase reductase (nifH) copy number between 1.44 × 10³ and 3.34 × 10³ copy g^-1 soil. Fourier-transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy data identified -CO-, C=O ([Formula: see text] and -NH-), [Formula: see text], and OH- as dominant organic functional groups in the paddy soil. Multivariate analysis was performed to get a clear and more accurate picture of interactions between free-living diazotrophs and abiotic soil factors. Regression analysis suggested a similar trend of distribution of different functional groups along each site. Relative abundance and diversity of diazotrophic population increased in response to FT-IR-based soil organic fractions. Maximum number of FT-IR spectral peak at sites in the Chandauli district augmented its bacterial diazotrophic diversity and abundance. Taken together, the present study sheds light on the substrate-driven composition of the microbial population of selected paddy areas.

Structural Changes in an Anion Channelrhodopsin: Formation of the K and L Intermediates at 80 K

A recently discovered natural family of light-gated anion channelrhodopsins (ACRs) from cryptophyte algae provides an effective means of optogenetically silencing neurons. The most extensively studied ACR is from Guillardia theta (GtACR1). Earlier studies of GtACR1 have established a correlation between formation of a blue-shifted L-like intermediate and the anion channel "open" state. To study structural changes of GtACR1 in the K and L intermediates of the photocycle, a combination of low-temperature Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) and ultraviolet-visible absorption difference spectroscopy was used along with stable-isotope retinal labeling and site-directed mutagenesis. In contrast to bacteriorhodopsin (BR) and other microbial rhodopsins, which form only a stable red-shifted K intermediate at 80 K, GtACR1 forms both stable K and L-like intermediates. Evidence includes the appearance of positive ethylenic and fingerprint vibrational bands characteristic of the L intermediate as well as a positive visible absorption band near 485 nm. FTIR difference bands in the carboxylic acid C═O stretching region indicate that several Asp/Glu residues undergo hydrogen bonding changes at 80 K. The Glu68 → Gln and Ser97 → Glu substitutions, residues located close to the retinylidene Schiff base, altered the K:L ratio and several of the FTIR bands in the carboxylic acid region. In the case of the Ser97 → Glu substitution, a significant red-shift of the absorption wavelength of the K and L intermediates occurs. Sequence comparisons suggest that L formation in GtACR1 at 80 K is due in part to the substitution of the highly conserved Leu or Ile at position 93 in helix 3 (BR sequence) with the homologous Met105 in GtACR1.

Ultrafast Photoinduced Deactivation Dynamics of Proteorhodopsin

We report femtosecond time-resolved absorption change measurements of the photoinduced deactivation dynamics of a microbial rhodopsin in the ultraviolet-visible and mid-infrared range. The blue light quenching process is recorded in green proteorhodopsin's (GPR) primary proton donor mutant E108Q from the deprotonated 13-cis photointermediate. The return of GPR to the dark state occurs in two steps, starting with the photoinduced 13-cis to all-trans reisomerization of the retinal. The subsequent Schiff base reprotonation via the primary proton acceptor (D97) occurs on a nanosecond time scale. This step is two orders of magnitude faster than that in bacteriorhodopsin, potentially because of the very high pK_A of the GPR primary proton acceptor.

Fluorescence and excited state dynamics of the deprotonated Schiff base retinal in proteorhodopsin

The UV light absorbing species of proteorhodopsin with deprotonated Schiff base retinal was investigated using steady-state fluorescence and femtosecond pump-probe spectroscopy. Compared to the all-trans retinal with protonated Schiff base, the deprotonated chromophore absorbs at 365 nm and exhibits a blue-shifted fluorescence spectrum. The unusually long-lived excited state decays bi-exponentially with time constants of 8 ps and 130 ps to form a deprotonated 13-cis retinal as the primary photo-product.

Assembling a Correctly Folded and Functional Heptahelical Membrane Protein by Protein Trans-splicing

Protein trans-splicing using split inteins is well established as a useful tool for protein engineering. Here we show, for the first time, that this method can be applied to a membrane protein under native conditions. We provide compelling evidence that the heptahelical proteorhodopsin can be assembled from two separate fragments consisting of helical bundles A and B and C, D, E, F, and G via a splicing site located in the BC loop. The procedure presented here is on the basis of dual expression and ligation in vivo. Global fold, stability, and photodynamics were analyzed in detergent by CD, stationary, as well as time-resolved optical spectroscopy. The fold within lipid bilayers has been probed by high field and dynamic nuclear polarization-enhanced solid-state NMR utilizing a (13)C-labeled retinal cofactor and extensively (13)C-(15)N-labeled protein. Our data show unambiguously that the ligation product is identical to its non-ligated counterpart. Furthermore, our data highlight the effects of BC loop modifications onto the photocycle kinetics of proteorhodopsin. Our data demonstrate that a correctly folded and functionally intact protein can be produced in this artificial way. Our findings are of high relevance for a general understanding of the assembly of membrane proteins for elucidating intramolecular interactions, and they offer the possibility of developing novel labeling schemes for spectroscopic applications.

Structural basis of the green-blue color switching in proteorhodopsin as determined by NMR spectroscopy

Proteorhodopsins (PRs) found in marine microbes are the most abundant retinal-based photoreceptors on this planet. PR variants show high levels of environmental adaptation, as their colors are tuned to the optimal wavelength of available light. The two major green and blue subfamilies can be interconverted through a L/Q point mutation at position 105. Here we reveal the structural basis behind this intriguing color-tuning effect. High-field solid-state NMR spectroscopy was used to visualize structural changes within green PR directly within the lipid bilayer upon introduction of the green-blue L105Q mutation. The observed effects are localized within the binding pocket and close to retinal carbons C14 and C15. Subsequently, magic-angle spinning (MAS) NMR spectroscopy with sensitivity enhancement by dynamic nuclear polarization (DNP) was applied to determine precisely the retinal structure around C14-C15. Upon mutation, a significantly stretched C14-C15 bond, deshielding of C15, and a slight alteration of the retinal chain's out-of-plane twist was observed. The L105Q blue switch therefore acts locally on the retinal itself and induces a conjugation defect between the isomerization region and the imine linkage. Consequently, the S0-S1 energy gap increases, resulting in the observed blue shift. The distortion of the chromophore structure also offers an explanation for the elongated primary reaction detected by pump-probe spectroscopy, while chemical shift perturbations within the protein can be linked to the elongation of late-photocycle intermediates studied by flash photolysis. Besides resolving a long-standing problem, this study also demonstrates that the combination of data obtained from high-field and DNP-enhanced MAS NMR spectroscopy together with time-resolved optical spectroscopy enables powerful synergies for in-depth functional studies of membrane proteins.

Proteorhodopsin

Proteorhodopsins are the most abundant retinal based photoreceptors and their phototrophic function might be relevant in marine ecosystems. Here, we describe their remarkable molecular properties with a special focus on the green absorbing variant. Its distinct features include a high pKa value of the primary proton acceptor stabilized through an interaction with a conserved histidine, a long-range interaction between the cytoplasmic EF loop and the chromophore entailing a particular mode of color tuning and a variable proton pumping vectoriality with complex voltage-dependence. The proteorhodopsin family represents a profound example for structure-function relationships. Especially the development of a biophysical understanding of green proteorhodopsin is an excellent example for the unique opportunities offered by a combined approach of advanced spectroscopic and electrophysiological methods. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Retinal Proteins-You can teach an old dog new tricks.