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Kołodziej M, Kaznowska E, Paszek S, Cebulski J, Barnaś E, Cholewa M, Vongsvivut J, Zawlik I. Characterisation of breast cancer molecular signature and treatment assessment with vibrational spectroscopy and chemometric approach. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0264347. [PMID: 35263369 PMCID: PMC8906614 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0264347] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2021] [Accepted: 02/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) is regarded as the most aggressive breast cancer subtype with poor overall survival and lack of targeted therapies, resulting in many patients with recurrent. The insight into the detailed biochemical composition of TNBC would help develop dedicated treatments. Thus, in this study Fourier Transform Infrared microspectroscopy combined with chemometrics and absorbance ratios investigation was employed to compare healthy controls with TNBC tissue before and after chemotherapy within the same patient. The primary spectral differences between control and cancer tissues were found in proteins, polysaccharides, and nucleic acids. Amide I/Amide II ratio decrease before and increase after chemotherapy, whereas DNA, RNA, and glycogen contents increase before and decrease after the treatment. The chemometric results revealed discriminatory features reflecting a clinical response scheme and proved the chemotherapy efficacy assessment with infrared spectroscopy is possible.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ewa Kaznowska
- Centre for Innovative Research in Medical and Natural Sciences, Medical College of Rzeszow University, Rzeszow, Poland
- Department of Pathology, Medical College of Rzeszow University, Rzeszow, Poland
| | - Sylwia Paszek
- Centre for Innovative Research in Medical and Natural Sciences, Medical College of Rzeszow University, Rzeszow, Poland
- Department of Genetics, Institution of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, University of Rzeszow, Poland
| | - Józef Cebulski
- Centre for Innovation and Transfer of Natural Sciences and Engineering Knowledge, University of Rzeszow, Rzeszow, Poland
| | - Edyta Barnaś
- Institute of Obstetrics and Emergency Medicine, Medical College of Rzeszow University, Rzeszow, Poland
| | - Marian Cholewa
- Centre for Innovation and Transfer of Natural Sciences and Engineering Knowledge, University of Rzeszow, Rzeszow, Poland
| | | | - Izabela Zawlik
- Centre for Innovative Research in Medical and Natural Sciences, Medical College of Rzeszow University, Rzeszow, Poland
- Department of Genetics, Institution of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, University of Rzeszow, Poland
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2
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Ferguson D, Henderson A, McInnes EF, Lind R, Wildenhain J, Gardner P. Infrared micro-spectroscopy coupled with multivariate and machine learning techniques for cancer classification in tissue: a comparison of classification method, performance, and pre-processing technique. Analyst 2022; 147:3709-3722. [DOI: 10.1039/d2an00775d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
A meta-analysis of various multivariate/Machine Learning (ML) classifiers trained on IR Micro-spectroscopy tissue datasets for cancer classification are directly compared using a calculated F1-Score metric alongside study pre-processing techniques.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dougal Ferguson
- Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, University of Manchester, 131 Princess Street, Manchester, M1 7DN, UK
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Analytical Science, School of Engineering, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PL, UK
| | - Alex Henderson
- Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, University of Manchester, 131 Princess Street, Manchester, M1 7DN, UK
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Analytical Science, School of Engineering, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PL, UK
| | | | - Rob Lind
- Syngenta, International Research Centre, Jealotts Hill, Bracknell, RG42 6EY, UK
| | - Jan Wildenhain
- Syngenta, International Research Centre, Jealotts Hill, Bracknell, RG42 6EY, UK
| | - Peter Gardner
- Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, University of Manchester, 131 Princess Street, Manchester, M1 7DN, UK
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Analytical Science, School of Engineering, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PL, UK
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3
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Shakya BR, Teppo HR, Rieppo L. Discrimination of melanoma cell lines with Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. SPECTROCHIMICA ACTA. PART A, MOLECULAR AND BIOMOLECULAR SPECTROSCOPY 2021; 254:119665. [PMID: 33744696 DOI: 10.1016/j.saa.2021.119665] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2020] [Revised: 02/22/2021] [Accepted: 02/28/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Among skin cancers, melanoma is the lethal form and the leading cause of death in humans. Melanoma begins in melanocytes and is curable at early stages. Thus, early detection and evaluation of its metastatic potential are crucial for effective clinical intervention. Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy has gained considerable attention due to its versatility in detecting biochemical and biological features present in the samples. Changes in these features are used to differentiate between samples at different stages of the disease. Previously, FTIR spectroscopy has been mostly used to distinguish between healthy and diseased conditions. With this study, we aim to discriminate between different melanoma cell lines based on their FTIR spectra. Formalin-fixed paraffin embedded samples from three melanoma cell lines (IPC-298, SK-MEL-30 and COLO-800) were used. Statistically significant differences were observed in the prominent spectral bands of three cell lines along with shifts in peak positions. A partial least square discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) model built for the classification of three cell lines showed an overall accuracy of 92.6% with a sensitivity of 85%, 95.75%, 96.54%, and specificity of 97.80%, 92.14%, 98.64% for the differentiation of IPC-298, SK-MEL-30, and COLO-800, respectively. The results suggest that FTIR spectroscopy can differentiate between different melanoma cell lines and thus potentially characterize the metastatic potential of melanoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bijay Ratna Shakya
- Research Unit of Medical Imaging, Physics and Technology, University of Oulu/Faculty of Medicine, Aapistie 5 A, 90220 Oulu, Finland.
| | - Hanna-Riikka Teppo
- Cancer Research and Translational Medicine Research Unit, University of Oulu, Aapistie 5 A, 90220 Oulu, Finland; Department of Pathology, Oulu University Hospital, Oulu, Finland; Medical Research Center Oulu, Oulu University Hospital and University of Oulu, Finland.
| | - Lassi Rieppo
- Research Unit of Medical Imaging, Physics and Technology, University of Oulu/Faculty of Medicine, Aapistie 5 A, 90220 Oulu, Finland.
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Leite MN, Viegas JSR, Praça FSG, de Paula NA, Ramalho LNZ, Bentley MVLB, Frade MAC. Ex vivo model of human skin (hOSEC) for assessing the dermatokinetics of the anti-melanoma drug Dacarbazine. Eur J Pharm Sci 2021; 160:105769. [PMID: 33610737 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejps.2021.105769] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2020] [Revised: 02/05/2021] [Accepted: 02/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Alternative models to replace animals in experimental studies remain a challenge in testing the effectiveness of dermatologic and cosmetic drugs. We proposed a model of human organotypic skin explant culture (hOSEC) to assess the profile of cutaneous drug skin distribution, adopting dacarbazine as a model, and respective new methodologies for dermatokinetic analysis. The viability tests were evaluated in primary keratinocytes and fibroblasts, and skin by MTT and TTC assays, respectively. Then, dacarbazine was applied to the culture medium, and the hOSEC method was applied to verify the dynamics of skin distribution of dacarbazine and determine its dermatokinetic profile. The results of cell and tissue viability showed that both were considered viable. The dermatokinetic results indicated that dacarbazine can be absorbed through the skin, reaching a concentration of 36.36 µg/mL (18,18%) of the initial dose (200 µg/mL) after 12 h in culture. Histological data showed that the skin maintained its structure throughout the tested time that the hOSEC method was applied. No apoptotic cells were observed in the epidermal and dermal layers. No visible changes in the dermo-epidermal junction and no inflammatory processes with the recruitment of defense cells were observed. Hence, these findings suggest that the hOSEC concept as an alternative ex vivo model for assessing the dynamics of skin distribution of drugs, such as dacarbazine, and determining their respective dermatokinetic profiles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcel Nani Leite
- Division of Dermatology - Wound Healing & Hansen's Disease Lab, Department of Internal Medicine, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil.
| | - Juliana Santos Rosa Viegas
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil.
| | - Fabíola Silva Garcia Praça
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil.
| | - Natália Aparecida de Paula
- Division of Dermatology - Wound Healing & Hansen's Disease Lab, Department of Internal Medicine, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil.
| | - Leandra Náira Zambelli Ramalho
- Department of Pathology and Legal Medicine, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil.
| | | | - Marco Andrey Cipriani Frade
- Division of Dermatology - Wound Healing & Hansen's Disease Lab, Department of Internal Medicine, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil.
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Brézillon S, Untereiner V, Mohamed HT, Ahallal E, Proult I, Nizet P, Boulagnon-Rombi C, Sockalingum GD. Label-Free Infrared Spectral Histology of Skin Tissue Part II: Impact of a Lumican-Derived Peptide on Melanoma Growth. Front Cell Dev Biol 2020; 8:377. [PMID: 32548117 PMCID: PMC7273845 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2020.00377] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2020] [Accepted: 04/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Melanoma is the most aggressive type of cutaneous malignancies. In addition to its role as a regulator of extracellular matrix (ECM) integrity, lumican, a small leucine-rich proteoglycan, also exhibits anti-tumor properties in melanoma. This work focuses on the use of infrared spectral imaging (IRSI) and histopathology (IRSH) to study the effect of lumican-derived peptide (L9Mc) on B16F1 melanoma primary tumor growth. Female C57BL/6 mice were injected with B16F1 cells treated with L9Mc (n = 10) or its scrambled peptide (n = 8), and without peptide (control, n = 9). The melanoma primary tumors were subjected to histological and IR imaging analysis. In addition, immunohistochemical staining was performed using anti-Ki-67 and anti-cleaved caspase-3 antibodies. The IR images were analyzed by common K-means clustering to obtain high-contrast IRSH that allowed identifying different ECM tissue regions from the epidermis to the tumor area, which correlated well with H&E staining. Furthermore, IRSH showed good correlation with immunostaining data obtained with anti-Ki-67 and anti-cleaved caspase-3 antibodies, whereby the L9Mc peptide inhibited cell proliferation and increased strongly apoptosis of B16F1 cells in this mouse model of melanoma primary tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stéphane Brézillon
- Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne, Laboratoire de Biochimie Médicale et Biologie Moléculaire, Reims, France.,CNRS UMR 7369, Matrice Extracellulaire et Dynamique Cellulaire - MEDyC, Reims, France
| | | | - Hossam Taha Mohamed
- Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne, Laboratoire de Biochimie Médicale et Biologie Moléculaire, Reims, France.,CNRS UMR 7369, Matrice Extracellulaire et Dynamique Cellulaire - MEDyC, Reims, France.,Zoology Department, Faculty of Science, Cairo University, Giza, Egypt.,Faculty of Biotechnology, October University for Modern Sciences and Arts, Giza, Egypt
| | - Estelle Ahallal
- Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne, Laboratoire de Biochimie Médicale et Biologie Moléculaire, Reims, France.,CNRS UMR 7369, Matrice Extracellulaire et Dynamique Cellulaire - MEDyC, Reims, France
| | - Isabelle Proult
- Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne, Laboratoire de Biochimie Médicale et Biologie Moléculaire, Reims, France.,CNRS UMR 7369, Matrice Extracellulaire et Dynamique Cellulaire - MEDyC, Reims, France
| | - Pierre Nizet
- Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne, Laboratoire de Biochimie Médicale et Biologie Moléculaire, Reims, France.,CNRS UMR 7369, Matrice Extracellulaire et Dynamique Cellulaire - MEDyC, Reims, France
| | - Camille Boulagnon-Rombi
- CNRS UMR 7369, Matrice Extracellulaire et Dynamique Cellulaire - MEDyC, Reims, France.,CHU de Reims, Laboratoire Central d'Anatomie et de Cytologie Pathologique, Reims, France
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Chaber R, Arthur CJ, Łach K, Raciborska A, Michalak E, Bilska K, Drabko K, Depciuch J, Kaznowska E, Cebulski J. Predicting Ewing Sarcoma Treatment Outcome Using Infrared Spectroscopy and Machine Learning. Molecules 2019; 24:molecules24061075. [PMID: 30893786 PMCID: PMC6470837 DOI: 10.3390/molecules24061075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2019] [Revised: 03/03/2019] [Accepted: 03/14/2019] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Improved outcome prediction is vital for the delivery of risk-adjusted, appropriate and effective care to paediatric patients with Ewing sarcoma—the second most common paediatric malignant bone tumour. Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy of tissues allows the bulk biochemical content of a biological sample to be probed and makes possible the study and diagnosis of disease. Methods: In this retrospective study, FTIR spectra of sections of biopsy-obtained bone tissue were recorded. Twenty-seven patients (between 5 and 20 years of age) with newly diagnosed Ewing sarcoma of bone were included in this study. The prognostic value of FTIR spectra obtained from Ewing sarcoma (ES) tumours before and after neoadjuvant chemotherapy were analysed in combination with various data-reduction and machine learning approaches. Results: Random forest and linear discriminant analysis supervised learning models were able to correctly predict patient mortality in 92% of cases using leave-one-out cross-validation. The best performing model for predicting patient relapse was a linear Support Vector Machine trained on the observed spectral changes as a result of chemotherapy treatment, which achieved 92% accuracy. Conclusion: FTIR spectra of tumour biopsy samples may predict treatment outcome in paediatric Ewing sarcoma patients with greater than 92% accuracy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Radosław Chaber
- Clinic of Paediatric Oncology and Haematology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rzeszow, ul. Kopisto 2a, 35-310 Rzeszow, Poland.
| | | | - Kornelia Łach
- Clinic of Paediatric Oncology and Haematology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rzeszow, ul. Kopisto 2a, 35-310 Rzeszow, Poland.
| | - Anna Raciborska
- Department of Surgical Oncology for Children and Youth, Institute of Mother and Child, 01-211 Warsaw, Poland.
| | - Elżbieta Michalak
- Department of Pathology, Institute of Mother and Child, 01-211 Warsaw, Poland.
| | - Katarzyna Bilska
- Department of Surgical Oncology for Children and Youth, Institute of Mother and Child, 01-211 Warsaw, Poland.
| | - Katarzyna Drabko
- Department of Pediatric Hematology, Oncology and Bone Marrow Transplant, Medical University of Lublin, 20-081 Lublin, Poland.
| | - Joanna Depciuch
- Institute of Nuclear Physics, Polish Academy of Sciences, 31-342 Krakow, Poland.
| | - Ewa Kaznowska
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Centre for Innovative Research in Medical and Natural Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rzeszow, 35-959 Rzeszow, Poland.
- Department of Human Histology, Chair of Morphological Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rzeszow, 35-959 Rzeszow, Poland.
| | - Józef Cebulski
- Center for Innovation and Transfer of Natural Sciences and Engineering Knowledge, University of Rzeszow, 35-959 Rzeszow, Poland.
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Distinguishing Ewing sarcoma and osteomyelitis using FTIR spectroscopy. Sci Rep 2018; 8:15081. [PMID: 30305666 PMCID: PMC6180062 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-33470-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2018] [Accepted: 10/01/2018] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
The differential diagnosis of Ewing sarcoma and osteomyelitis can be challenging and can lead to delays in treatment with possibly devastating results. In this retrospective, small-cohort study we demonstrate, that the Fourier Transformed Infrared (FTIR) spectra of osteomyelitis bone tissue can be differentiated from Ewing sarcoma and normal bone tissue sampled outside tumour area. Significant differences in osteomyelitis samples can be seen in lipid and protein composition. Supervised learning using a quadratic discriminant analysis classifier was able to differentiate the osteomyelitis samples with high accuracy. FTIR spectroscopy, alongside routine radiological and histopathological methods, may offer an additional tool for the differential diagnosis of osteomyelitis and ES.
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8
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Chaber R, Łach K, Arthur CJ, Raciborska A, Michalak E, Ciebiera K, Bilska K, Drabko K, Cebulski J. Prediction of Ewing Sarcoma treatment outcome using attenuated tissue reflection FTIR tissue spectroscopy. Sci Rep 2018; 8:12299. [PMID: 30120284 PMCID: PMC6098133 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-29795-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2018] [Accepted: 07/18/2018] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Ewing sarcoma is the second most common type of primary bone cancer and predominantly affects children and young people. Improved outcome prediction is key to delivering risk-adjusted, appropriate and effective care to cancer patients. Advances in the Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy of tissues enable it to be a non-invasive method to obtain information about the biochemical content of any biological sample. In this retrospective study, attenuated tissue reflection FTIR spectroscopy of biopsy samples from paediatric patients reveals spectral features that are diagnostic for Ewing Sarcoma. Furthermore, our results suggest that spectral features such as these may be of value for the prediction of treatment outcome independent to well-known, routinely used risk factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Radosław Chaber
- Clinic of Paediatric Oncology and Haematology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rzeszow, Rzeszow, Poland.
| | - Kornelia Łach
- Clinic of Paediatric Oncology and Haematology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rzeszow, Rzeszow, Poland
| | | | - Anna Raciborska
- Department of Oncology and Surgical Oncology for Children and Youth, Institute of Mother and Child, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Elżbieta Michalak
- Department of Pathology, Institute of Mother and Child, Warsaw, Poland
| | | | - Katarzyna Bilska
- Department of Oncology and Surgical Oncology for Children and Youth, Institute of Mother and Child, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Katarzyna Drabko
- Department of Pediatric Hematology, Oncology and Bone Marrow Transplant, Medical University of Lublin, Lublin, Poland
| | - Józef Cebulski
- Center for Innovation and Transfer of Natural Sciences and Engineering Knowledge, University of Rzeszow, Rzeszow, Poland
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9
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Amin AM, Abd El-Halim SM, El-Sabagh HA, Abdel-Mottaleb MSA. Formulation and Biodistribution of 99mTc-Dacarbazine, a Radioligand for Neoplasm Imaging. RADIOCHEMISTRY 2018; 60:208-214. [DOI: 10.1134/s1066362218020121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2017] [Indexed: 09/02/2023]
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10
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Wrobel TP, Bhargava R. Infrared Spectroscopic Imaging Advances as an Analytical Technology for Biomedical Sciences. Anal Chem 2018; 90:1444-1463. [PMID: 29281255 PMCID: PMC6421863 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.7b05330] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Tomasz P. Wrobel
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Rohit Bhargava
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
- Departments of Bioengineering, Electrical and Computer Engineering, Mechanical Science and Engineering, Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, and Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana−Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
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Dehdashtian S, Behbahanian N, Taherzadeh KM. An ultrasensitive electrochemical sensor for direct determination of anticancer drug dacarbazine based on multiwall carbon nanotube-modified carbon paste electrode and application in pharmaceutical sample. JOURNAL OF THE IRANIAN CHEMICAL SOCIETY 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s13738-018-1291-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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12
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De Meutter J, Vandenameele J, Matagne A, Goormaghtigh E. Infrared imaging of high density protein arrays. Analyst 2017; 142:1371-1380. [DOI: 10.1039/c6an02048h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
We propose in this paper that protein microarrays could be analysed by infrared imaging in place of enzymatic or fluorescence labelling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joëlle De Meutter
- Center for Structural Biology and Bioinformatics
- Laboratory for the Structure and Function of Biological Membranes
- Campus Plaine CP206/02
- Université Libre de Bruxelles CP206/2
- B1050 Brussels
| | - Julie Vandenameele
- Laboratory of Enzymology and Protein Folding
- Centre for Protein Engineering
- University of Liège
- 4000 Liège
- Belgium
| | - André Matagne
- Laboratory of Enzymology and Protein Folding
- Centre for Protein Engineering
- University of Liège
- 4000 Liège
- Belgium
| | - Erik Goormaghtigh
- Center for Structural Biology and Bioinformatics
- Laboratory for the Structure and Function of Biological Membranes
- Campus Plaine CP206/02
- Université Libre de Bruxelles CP206/2
- B1050 Brussels
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