Induction of ferritin expression by oxalomalate

The case for oxidative stress molecule involvement in the tick-pathogen interactions -an omics approach

The blood-feeding behavior of ticks has resulted in them becoming one of the most important vectors of disease-causing pathogens. Ticks possess a well-developed innate immune system to counter invading pathogens. However, the coevolution of ticks with tick-borne pathogens has adapted these pathogens to the tick's physiology and immune response through several mechanisms including transcriptional regulation. The recent development in tick and tick-borne disease research greatly involved the "omics" approach. The omics approach takes a look en masse at the different genes, proteins, metabolomes, and the microbiome of the ticks that could be differentiated during pathogen infection. Data from this approach revealed that oxidative stress-related molecules in ticks are differentiated and possibly being exploited by the pathogens to evade the tick's immune response. In this study, we review and discuss transcriptomic and proteomic data for some oxidative stress molecules differentially expressed during pathogen infection. We also discuss metabolomics and microbiome data as well as functional genomics in order to provide insight into the tick-pathogen interaction.

Induction of intracellular ferritin expression in embryo-derived Ixodes scapularis cell line (ISE6)

Iron is a very important nutrient for cells; however, it could also cause fatal effects because of its capability to trigger oxidative stress. Due to high exposure to iron from their blood diet, ticks make use of several mechanisms to cope up with oxidative stress. One mechanism is iron sequestration by ferritin and its control protein (IRP). Since the IRP activity is dependent on the ferrous iron concentration, we tried to induce intracellular ferritin (FER1) protein expression by exposing Ixodes scapularis embryo-derived cell line (ISE6) to different concentrations of ferrous sulphate at different time points. We were able to induce FER1 protein after exposure to 2 mM of ferrous sulphate for 48 h, as observed in both Western blotting and indirect immunofluorescent antibody tests. This could indicate that the FER1 produced could be a product of the release of IRPs from the FER1 mRNA leading to its translation. The RNA interference of FER1, through the transfection of dsRNA, led to an increase in mortality and decrease in the cellular proliferation of ISE6 cells. Overall, ISE6 cells could be a good tool in further understanding the mechanism of FER1 action, not just in Ixodes ticks but in other tick species as well.

The actin-binding protein profilin 2 is a novel regulator of iron homeostasis

Pfn2 mRNA has a functional and conserved IRE in the 3′ untranslated region. Pfn2 knockout mice display an iron phenotype with iron accumulation in specific areas of the brain and depletion of liver iron stores.

Cysteine Prevents the Reduction in Keratin Synthesis Induced by Iron Deficiency in Human Keratinocytes

L-cysteine is currently recognized as a conditionally essential sulphur amino acid. Besides contributing to many biological pathways, cysteine is a key component of the keratin protein by its ability to form disulfide bridges that confer strength and rigidity to the protein. In addition to cysteine, iron represents another critical factor in regulating keratins expression in epidermal tissues, as well as in hair follicle growth and maturation. By focusing on human keratinocytes, the aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of cysteine supplementation as nutraceutical on keratin biosynthesis, as well as to get an insight on the interplay of cysteine availability and cellular iron status in regulating keratins expression in vitro. Herein we demonstrate that cysteine promotes a significant up-regulation of keratins expression as a result of de novo protein synthesis, while the lack of iron impairs keratin expression. Interestingly, cysteine supplementation counteracts the adverse effect of iron deficiency on cellular keratin expression. This effect was likely mediated by the up-regulation of transferrin receptor and ferritin, the main cellular proteins involved in iron homeostasis, at last affecting the labile iron pool. In this manner, cysteine may also enhance the metabolic iron availability for DNA synthesis without creating a detrimental condition of iron overload. To the best of our knowledge, this is one of the first study in an in vitro keratinocyte model providing evidence that cysteine and iron cooperate for keratins expression, indicative of their central role in maintaining healthy epithelia.

Iron alters cell survival in a mitochondria-dependent pathway in ovarian cancer cells

The role of iron in the development of cancer remains unclear. We previously reported that iron reduces cell survival in a Ras/mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK)-dependent manner in ovarian cells; however, the underlying downstream pathway leading to reduced survival was unclear. Although levels of intracellular iron, ferritin/CD71 protein and reactive oxygen species did not correlate with iron-induced cell survival changes, we identified mitochondrial damage (via TEM) and reduced expression of outer mitochondrial membrane proteins (translocase of outer membrane: TOM20 and TOM70) in cell lines sensitive to iron. Interestingly, Ru360 (an inhibitor of the mitochondrial calcium uniporter) reversed mitochondrial changes and restored cell survival in HEY ovarian carcinoma cells treated with iron. Further, cells treated with Ru360 and iron also had reduced autophagic punctae with increased lysosomal numbers, implying cross-talk between these compartments. Mitochondrial changes were dependent on activation of the Ras/MAPK pathway since treatment with a MAPK inhibitor restored expression of TOM20/TOM70 proteins. Although glutathione antioxidant levels were reduced in HEY treated with iron, extracellular glutamate levels were unaltered. Strikingly, oxalomalate (inhibitor of aconitase, involved in glutamate production) reversed iron-induced responses in a similar manner to Ru360. Collectively, our results implicate iron in modulating cell survival in a mitochondria-dependent manner in ovarian cancer cells.

Iron and intracerebral hemorrhage: from mechanism to translation

Intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality around the world. Currently, there is no effective medical treatment available to improve functional outcomes in patients with ICH due to its unknown mechanisms of damage. Increasing evidence has shown that the metabolic products of erythrocytes are the key contributor of ICH-induced secondary brain injury. Iron, an important metabolic product that accumulates in the brain parenchyma, has a detrimental effect on secondary injury following ICH. Because the damage mechanism of iron during ICH-induced secondary injury is clear, iron removal therapy research on animal models is effective. Although many animal and clinical studies have been conducted, the exact metabolic pathways of iron and the mechanisms of iron removal treatments are still not clear. This review summarizes recent progress concerning the iron metabolism mechanisms underlying ICH-induced injury. We focus on iron, brain iron metabolism, the role of iron in oxidative injury, and iron removal therapy following ICH, and we suggest that further studies focus on brain iron metabolism after ICH and the mechanism for iron removal therapy.

High Fat Diet Induces Liver Steatosis and Early Dysregulation of Iron Metabolism in Rats

This paper is dedicated to the memory of our wonderful colleague Professor Alfredo Colonna, who passed away the same day of its acceptance. Fatty liver accumulation, inflammatory process and insulin resistance appear to be crucial in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), nevertheless emerging findings pointed an important role also for iron overload. Here, we investigate the molecular mechanisms of hepatic iron metabolism in the onset of steatosis to understand whether its impairment could be an early event of liver inflammatory injury. Rats were fed with control diet or high fat diet (HFD) for 5 or 8 weeks, after which liver morphology, serum lipid profile, transaminases levels and hepatic iron content (HIC), were evaluated. In liver of HFD fed animals an increased time-dependent activity of iron regulatory protein 1 (IRP1) was evidenced, associated with the increase in transferrin receptor-1 (TfR1) expression and ferritin down-regulation. Moreover, ferroportin (FPN-1), the main protein involved in iron export, was down-regulated accordingly with hepcidin increase. These findings were indicative of an increased iron content into hepatocytes, which leads to an increase of harmful free-iron also related to the reduction of hepatic ferritin content. The progressive inflammatory damage was evidenced by the increase of hepatic TNF-α, IL-6 and leptin, in parallel to increased iron content and oxidative stress. The major finding that emerged of this study is the impairment of iron homeostasis in the ongoing and sustaining of liver steatosis, suggesting a strong link between iron metabolism unbalance, inflammatory damage and progression of disease.

2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin promotes BHV-1 infection in mammalian cells by interfering with iron homeostasis regulation

Mammalian cells require iron to satisfy metabolic needs or to accomplish specialized functions, and DNA viruses, like bovine herpesvirus 1 (BHV-1), require an iron-replete host to efficiently replicate, so that iron bioavailability is an important component of viral virulence. Cellular iron metabolism is coordinately controlled by the Iron Regulatory Proteins (IRP1 and IRP2), whose activity is affected by 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD), a current and persistent environmental contaminant. Considering that TCDD enhances BHV-1 replication, herein we analyzed the effects of TCDD on iron metabolism during BHV-1 infection in MDBK cells, and presented evidences of a divergent modulation of IRP1 and IRP2 RNA-binding capacity. Moreover, an up-regulation of transferrin receptor 1 (TfR1) and a concomitant down-regulation of ferritin were observed. This scenario led to an expansion of the labile iron pool (LIP) and induces a significant enhance of viral titer, as confirmed by increased levels of BHV-1 infected cell protein 0 (bICP0), the major transcriptional regulatory protein of BHV-1. Taken together, our data suggest that TCDD increases the free intracellular iron availability thereby promoting the onset of BHV-1 infection and rendering bovine cells more vulnerable to the virus.

2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin impairs iron homeostasis by modulating iron-related proteins expression and increasing the labile iron pool in mammalian cells

Cellular iron metabolism is essentially controlled by the binding of cytosolic iron regulatory proteins (IRP1 or IRP2) to iron-responsive elements (IREs) located on mRNAs coding for proteins involved in iron acquisition, utilization and storage. The 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) is one of the most potent toxins of current interest that occurs as poisonous chemical in the environment. TCDD exposure has been reported to induce a broad spectrum of toxic and biological responses, including significant changes in gene expression for heme and iron metabolism associated with liver injury. Here, we have investigated the molecular effects of TCDD on the iron metabolism providing the first evidence that administration of the toxin TCDD to mammalian cells affects the maintenance of iron homeostasis. We found that exposure of Madin-Darby Bovine Kidney cell to TCDD caused a divergent modulation of IRP1 and IRP2 RNA-binding capacity. Interestingly, we observed a concomitant IRP1 down-regulation and IRP2 up-regulation thus determining a marked enhancement of transferrin receptor 1 (TfR-1) expression and a biphasic response in ferritin content. The changed ferritin content coupled to TfR-1 induction after TCDD exposure impairs the cellular iron homeostasis, ultimately leading to significant changes in the labile iron pool (LIP) extent. Since important iron requirement changes occur during the regulation of cell growth, it is not surprising that the dioxin-dependent iron metabolism dysregulation herein described may be linked to cell-fate decision, supporting the hypothesis of a central connection among exposure to dioxins and the regulation of critical cellular processes. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: 11th European Symposium on Calcium.

Iron regulatory protein-2 knockout increases perihematomal ferritin expression and cell viability after intracerebral hemorrhage

Iron is deposited in perihematomal tissue after an intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH), and may contribute to oxidative injury. Cell culture studies have demonstrated that enhancing ferritin expression by targeting iron regulatory protein (IRP) binding activity reduces cellular vulnerability to iron and hemoglobin. In order to assess the therapeutic potential of this approach after striatal ICH, the effect of IRP1 or IRP2 gene knockout on ferritin expression and injury was quantified. Striatal ferritin in IRP1 knockout mice was similar to that in wild-type controls 3 days after stereotactic injection of artificial CSF or autologous blood. Corresponding levels in IRP2 knockouts were increased by 11-fold and 8.4-fold, respectively, compared with wild-type. Protein carbonylation, a sensitive marker of hemoglobin neurotoxicity, was increased by 2.4-fold in blood-injected wild-type striata, was not altered by IRP1 knockout, but was reduced by approximately 60% by IRP2 knockout. Perihematomal cell viability in wild-type mice, assessed by MTT assay, was approximately half of that in contralateral striata at 3 days, and was significantly increased in IRP2 knockouts but not in IRP1 knockouts. Protection was also observed when hemorrhage was induced by collagenase injection. These results suggest that IRP2 binding activity reduces ferritin expression in the striatum after ICH, preventing an optimal response to elevated local iron concentrations. IRP2 binding activity may be a novel therapeutic target after hemorrhagic CNS injuries.

Ovariectomy and estrogen treatment modulate iron metabolism in rat adipose tissue

Iron is essential for many biological processes and its deficiency or excess is involved in pathological conditions. At cellular level, the maintenance of iron homeostasis is largely accomplished by the transferrin receptor (TfR-1) and by ferritin, whose expression is mainly regulated post-transcriptionally by iron regulatory proteins (IRPs). This study examines the hypothesis that modification of serum estrogen levels by ovariectomy and 17beta-estradiol (E(2)) treatment in rats modulate serum iron-status parameters and iron metabolism in adipose tissue. In particular, we evaluated the RNA binding of IRP1 by electrophoretic mobility-shift assay and IRP1, ferritin, and TfR-1 expression in adipose tissue by Western blot analysis. Ovariectomy, besides a lowered serum iron and transferrin iron binding capacity, remarkably decreased the binding activity of IRP1 in peritoneal and subcutaneous adipose tissues, and these effects were reversed by E(2) treatment. Moreover, ovariectomy determined a decrease of IRP1 expression, which was significant in subcutaneous adipose tissue. Consistent with IRP1 regulation, an increase of ferritin and a decrease of TfR-1 expression were observed in peritoneal adipose tissue from ovariectomized animals, while the treatment with E(2) reconstituted TfR-1 level. A similar expression profile of TfR-1 was observed in subcutaneous adipose tissue, where ferritin level did not change in ovariectomized animals, and was increased after E(2) treatment. Our results indicate that estrogen level changes can regulate the binding activity of the IRP1, and consequently ferritin and TfR-1 expression in adipose tissue, suggesting a relationship among serum and tissue iron parameters, estrogen status and adiposity.

Ultraviolet B and A irradiation induces fibromodulin expression in human fibroblasts in vitro

Ultraviolet (UV) radiation affects the extracellular matrix (ECM) of the human skin. The small leucine-rich repeat protein fibromodulin interacts with type I and II collagen fibrils, thereby affecting ECM assembly. The aim of this study was to evaluate whether short wave UV (UVB) or long wave UV (UVA) irradiation influences fibromodulin expression. Exponentially growing human fibroblasts (IMR-90 cells) were exposed to increasing doses of UVB (2.5-60 mJ/cm(2)) or UVA (0.5-10 J/cm(2)). After UV irradiation fibromodulin, p21 and GADD45 levels were evaluated as well as cell viability, reactive oxygen species formation (ROS) and DNA damage. We found that fibromodulin expression: (i) increased after UVB and UVA irradiation; (ii) was 10-fold higher after UVA (10 J/cm(2)) versus 5-fold with UVB (10 mJ/cm(2)); (iii) correlated with reactive oxygen species formation, particularly after UVA; and (iv) was linked to the DNA damage binding protein (DDB1) translocation in the nucleus, particularly after UVB. These results further suggest that the UV-induced fibromodulin increase could counteract the UV-induced connective tissue damage, promoting the assembly of new collagen fibrils.

Aconitate hydratase of mammals under oxidative stress

Data on the structure, functions, regulation of activity, and expression of cytosolic and mitochondrial aconitate hydratase isoenzymes of mammals are reviewed. The role of aconitate hydratase and structurally similar iron-regulatory protein in maintenance of homeostasis of cell iron is described. Information on modifications of the aconitate hydratase molecule and changes in expression under oxidative stress is generalized. The role of aconitate hydratase in the pathogenesis of some diseases is considered.

Iron regulatory proteins increase neuronal vulnerability to hydrogen peroxide

Iron regulatory protein (IRP)-1 and IRP2 inhibit ferritin synthesis by binding to an iron responsive element in the 5'-untranslated region of its mRNA. The present study tested the hypothesis that neurons lacking these proteins would be resistant to hydrogen peroxide (H(2)O(2)) toxicity. Wild-type cortical cultures treated with 100-300microM H(2)O(2) sustained widespread neuronal death, as measured by lactate dehydrogenase assay, and a significant increase in malondialdehyde. Both endpoints were reduced by over 85% in IRP2 knockout cultures. IRP1 gene deletion had a weaker and variable effect, with approximately 20% reduction in cell death at 300microM H(2)O(2). Ferritin expression after H(2)O(2) treatment was increased 1.9- and 6.7-fold in IRP1 and IRP2 knockout cultures, respectively, compared with wild-type. These results suggest that iron regulatory proteins, particularly IRP2, increase neuronal vulnerability to oxidative injury. Therapies targeting IRP2 binding to ferritin mRNA may attenuate neuronal loss due to oxidative stress.

Expression of iron-related proteins during infection by bovine herpes virus type-1

Bovine herpesvirus 1 (BHV-1), a dsDNA animal virus, is an economically important pathogen of cattle and the aetiological agent of many types of disease. The efficient replication of a DNA virus is strictly dependent on iron since this metal plays a crucial role in the catalytic center of viral ribonucleotide reductase. Consequently, iron metabolism is an important area for virus/host interaction and a large body of evidence suggests that viral infection is potentially influenced by the iron status of the host. The aim of the present study was to address the effects of BHV-1 on iron metabolism in Madin-Darby bovine kidney (MDBK) cells at different times of post-infection. For this purpose, cell viability, iron regulatory proteins (IRPs) activity and levels, transferrin receptor 1 (TfR-1), ferritin expression and LIP were evaluated. Our data demonstrate that a productive BHV-1 infection in MDBK cells determines an overall decrease of IRPs RNA-binding activity without affecting their expression. As consequence of this modulation, an increased ferritin mRNA translation and a decreased TfR-1 mRNA translation were also observed. Moreover, the LIP level was decreased following viral infection. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that by reducing the iron up-take and by enhancing the sequestration of free iron, animal cells will limit the iron availability for virus proliferation. Therefore, the results presented herein support the view that iron metabolism could be critical for the interaction between DNA viruses, such as BHV-1, and mammalian cells. Delineation of the interplay among pathogen and host may provide new antimicrobial agents.

Neurons lacking iron regulatory protein-2 are highly resistant to the toxicity of hemoglobin

The effect of iron regulatory protein-2 (IRP2) on ferritin expression and neuronal vulnerability to hemoglobin was assessed in primary cortical cell cultures prepared from wild-type and IRP2 knockout mice. Baseline levels of H and L-ferritin subunits were significantly increased in IRP2 knockout neurons and astrocytes. Hemoglobin was toxic to wild-type neurons in mixed neuron-astrocyte cultures, with an LC(50) near 3 microM for a 24 h exposure. Neuronal death was reduced by 85-95% in knockout cultures, and also in cultures containing knockout neurons plated on wild-type astrocytes. Protein carbonylation, reactive oxygen species formation, and heme oxygenase-1 expression after hemoglobin treatment were also attenuated by IRP2 gene deletion. These results suggest that IRP2 binding activity increases the vulnerability of neurons to hemoglobin, possibly by reducing ferritin expression. Therapeutic strategies that target this regulatory mechanism may be beneficial after hemorrhagic CNS injuries.

Lycopene, quercetin and tyrosol prevent macrophage activation induced by gliadin and IFN-gamma

Oxidative stress plays an important role in inflammatory process of celiac disease. We have studied the effect of the lycopene, quercetin and tyrosol natural antioxidants on the inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) gene expression in RAW 264.7 macrophages stimulated by gliadin in association with IFN-gamma. The IFN-gamma plus gliadin combination treatment was capable of enhancing iNOS and COX-2 gene expression and nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-kappaB), interferon regulatory factor-1 (IRF-1) and signal transducer and activator of transcription-1alpha (STAT-1alpha) activation induced by reactive oxygen species generation at 24 h. Lycopene, quercetin and tyrosol inhibited all these effects. The results here reported suggest that these compounds may represent non toxic agents for the control of pro-inflammatory genes involved in celiac disease.

Oxalomalate affects the inducible nitric oxide synthase expression and activity

Inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) is an homodimeric enzyme which produces large amounts of nitric oxide (NO) in response to inflammatory stimuli. Several factors affect the synthesis and catalytic activity of iNOS. Particularly, dimerization of NOS monomers is promoted by heme, whereas an intracellular depletion of heme and/or L-arginine considerably decreases NOS resistance to proteolysis. In this study, we found that oxalomalate (OMA, oxalomalic acid, alpha-hydroxy-beta-oxalosuccinic acid), an inhibitor of both aconitase and NADP-dependent isocitrate dehydrogenase, inhibited nitrite production and iNOS protein expression in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-activated J774 macrophages, without affecting iNOS mRNA content. Furthermore, injection of OMA precursors to LPS-stimulated rats also decreased nitrite production and iNOS expression in isolated peritoneal macrophages. Interestingly, alpha-ketoglutarate or succinyl-CoA administration reversed OMA effect on NO production, thus correlating NO biosynthesis with the anabolic capacity of Krebs cycle. When protein synthesis was blocked by cycloheximide in LPS-activated J774 cells treated with OMA, iNOS protein levels, evaluated by Western blot analysis and (35)S-metabolic labelling, were decreased, suggesting that OMA reduces iNOS biosynthesis and induces an increase in the degradation rate of iNOS protein. Moreover, we showed that OMA inhibits the activity of the iNOS from lung of LPS-treated rats by enzymatic assay. Our results, demonstrating that OMA acts regulating synthesis, catalytic activity and degradation of iNOS, suggest that this compound might have a potential role in reducing the NO overproduction occurring in some pathological conditions.

Induction of H-ferritin synthesis by oxalomalate is regulated at both the transcriptional and post-transcriptional levels

Ferritin gene expression is complex and is controlled at transcriptional level in response to a variety of stimuli such as hormones, cytokines and cAMP. Iron, hemin and several compounds, chemically different, also activate the transcription of the ferritin gene. Ferritin biosynthesis is mainly regulated at post-transcriptional level by iron regulatory proteins (IRP1 and IRP2). We previously reported that oxalomalate, a competitive inhibitor of aconitase, remarkably decreases the IRP1 RNA-binding activity and induces a significant increase of ferritin expression. Here, we examined in cells cultured in presence of OMA the IRP1 intracellular content, ferritin biosynthesis and the transcriptional efficiency of H-ferritin gene promoter. Our results demonstrate a peculiar role of OMA that rapidly inactivates IRP1 without affecting IRP1 protein content and subsequently activates H-ferritin gene transcription leading to an overall increase of ferritin biosynthesis. We conclude that OMA regulates H-ferritin biosynthesis acting early at the post-transcriptional level and later on at transcriptional level.

Molecular control of vertebrate iron homeostasis by iron regulatory proteins

Both deficiencies and excesses of iron represent major public health problems throughout the world. Understanding the cellular and organismal processes controlling iron homeostasis is critical for identifying iron-related diseases and in advancing the clinical treatments for such disorders of iron metabolism. Iron regulatory proteins (IRPs) 1 and 2 are key regulators of vertebrate iron metabolism. These RNA binding proteins post-transcriptionally control the stability or translation of mRNAs encoding proteins involved in iron homeostasis thereby controlling the uptake, utilization, storage or export of iron. Recent evidence provides insight into how IRPs selectively control the translation or stability of target mRNAs, how IRP RNA binding activity is controlled by iron-dependent and iron-independent effectors, and the pathological consequences of dysregulation of the IRP system.

Divergent modulation of iron regulatory proteins and ferritin biosynthesis by hypoxia/reoxygenation in neurones and glial cells

Ferritin, the main iron storage protein, exerts a cytoprotective effect against the iron-catalyzed production of reactive oxygen species, but its role in brain injury caused by hypoxia/reoxygenation is unclear. Ferritin expression is regulated mainly at post-transcriptional level by iron regulatory proteins (IRP1 and IRP2) that bind specific RNA sequences (IREs) in the 5'untranslated region of ferritin mRNA. Here, we show that hypoxia decreases IRP1 binding activity in glial cells and enhances it in cortical neurons. These effects were reversed by reoxygenation in both cell types. In glial cells there was an early increase of ferritin synthesis during hypoxia and reoxygenation. Conversely, in cortical neurons, ferritin synthesis increased during the late phase of reoxygenation. Steady-state analysis of ferritin mRNA levels suggested that ferritin synthesis is regulated mainly post-transcriptionally by IRPs in glioma cells, both transcriptionally and post-transcriptionally in type-1 astrocytes, and mainly at transcriptional level in an IRP-independent way in neurons. The different regulation of ferritin expression may account for the different vulnerability of neurons and glial cells to the injury elicited by oxygen and glucose deprivation (OGD)/reoxygenation. The greater vulnerability of cortical neurons to hypoxia-reoxygenation was strongly attenuated by the exogenous administration of ferritin during OGD/reoxygenation, suggesting the possible cytoprotective role exerted by this iron-segregating protein.

Hydroxytyrosol, a phenolic compound from virgin olive oil, prevents macrophage activation

We investigated the effect of hydroxytyrosol (HT), a phenolic compound from virgin olive oil, on inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) expression in J774 murine macrophages stimulated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Incubation of cells with LPS caused an increase in iNOS and COX-2 mRNA and protein level as well as ROS generation, which was prevented by HT. In addition, HT blocked the activation of nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-kappaB), signal transducer and activator of transcription-1alpha (STAT-1alpha) and interferon regulatory factor-1 (IRF-1). These results, showing that HT down-regulates iNOS and COX-2 gene expression by preventing NF-kappaB, STAT-1alpha and IRF-1 activation mediated through LPS-induced ROS generation, suggest that it may represent a non-toxic agent for the control of pro-inflammatory genes.