Structure-function analysis of NEET proteins uncovers their role as key regulators of iron and ROS homeostasis in health and disease

Research progress on ferroptosis in cerebral hemorrhage

The pathophysiology of intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) is complex and can cause variable degrees of cell death. Recently, ferroptosis, an emerging cell death mechanism, has garnered significant attention in cerebral hemorrhage disorder. This study aimed to examine iron mortality after cerebral hemorrhage and current targets for potential therapeutic interventions. We specifically focused on iron metabolism abnormalities, lipid peroxidation, and related neuroinflammation and introduced molecular mechanisms, including transcription factors, to gain a better understanding of the underlying mechanisms of ferroptosis and investigate possible therapeutic options for ICH.

Genetic Markers of Postmortem Brain Iron

Brain iron (Fe) dyshomeostasis is implicated in neurodegenerative diseases. Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have identified plausible loci correlated with peripheral levels of Fe. Systemic organs and the brain share several Fe regulatory proteins but there likely exist different homeostatic pathways. We performed the first GWAS of inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry measures of postmortem brain Fe from 635 Rush Memory and Aging Project (MAP) participants. Sixteen single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) associated with Fe in at least one of four brain regions were measured (p < 5 × 10-8). Promising SNPs (p < 5 × 10-6) were followed up for replication in published GWAS of blood, spleen, and brain imaging Fe traits and mapped to candidate genes for targeted cortical transcriptomic and epigenetic analysis of postmortem Fe in MAP. Results for SNPs previously associated with other Fe traits were also examined. Ninety-eight SNPs associated with postmortem brain Fe were at least nominally (p < 0.05) associated with one or more related Fe traits. Most novel loci identified had no direct links to Fe regulatory pathways but rather endoplasmic reticulum-Golgi trafficking (SORL1, SORCS2, MARCH1, CLTC), heparan sulfate (HS3ST4, HS3ST1), and coenzyme A (SLC5A6, PANK3); supported by nearest gene function and omic analyses. We replicated (p < 0.05) several previously published Fe loci mapping to candidate genes in cellular and systemic Fe regulation. Finally, novel loci (BMAL, COQ5, SLC25A11) and replication of prior loci (PINK1, PPIF, LONP1) lend support to the role of circadian rhythms and mitochondria function in Fe regulation more generally. In summary, we provide support for novel loci linked to pathways that may have greater relevance to brain Fe accumulation; some of which are implicated in neurodegeneration. However, replication of a subset of prior loci for blood Fe suggests that genetic determinants or biological pathways underlying Fe accumulation in the brain are not completely distinct from those of Fe circulating in the periphery.

Iron-sulfur cluster redox chemistry and dimer dissociation in the outer mitochondrial membrane protein, mitoNEET

The outer mitochondrial membrane protein known as mitoNEET was discovered when it was labeled by a photoaffinity derivative of the anti-diabetes medication, pioglitazone. The biological role for mitoNEET and its specific mechanism for achieving this remains an active subject for research. There is accumulating evidence suggesting that mitoNEET could be a component of mitochondrial FeS cofactor biogenesis. The protein was composed of an N-terminal membrane associated domain and a C-terminal domain oriented to the cytosol. The cytosolic domain was an iron-sulfur (2Fe-2S) metalloprotein with a rare 3Cys/1His coordination environment. It was previously reported that mitoNEET formed dimers that were remarkably sensitive to pH, likely a consequence of the protonation of the single His-iron ligand. The hypothesis pursued in the research reported here was that perhaps the dissociation of mitoNEET was also sensitive to the redox state of the iron sulfur cluster. To use native electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-MS) to monitor the reduction reaction ammonium dithionite was envisioned as the appropriate reagent to avoid sodium ion adduct formation from sodium dithionite. The preparation of ammonium dithionite was updated and the compound had the same properties as the sodium salt with redox dyes and the oxidized form of glutathione. The dissociation of mitoNEET treated with ammonium dithionite anaerobically was readily evident as ammonium dithionite was found to be compatible with redox chemistry evaluated by native ESI-MS.

New insights into the ferroptosis and immune infiltration in endometriosis: a bioinformatics-based analysis

Background

Ferroptosis, a recently discovered iron-dependent cell death, is linked to various diseases but its role in endometriosis is still not fully understood.

Methods

In this study, we integrated microarray data of endometriosis from the GEO database and ferroptosis-related genes (FRGs) from the FerrDb database to further investigate the regulation of ferroptosis in endometriosis and its impact on the immune microenvironment. WGCNA identified ferroptosis-related modules, annotated by GO & KEGG. MNC algorithm pinpointed hub FRGs. Cytoscape construct a ceRNA network, and ROC curves evaluated diagnostic efficacy of hub FRGs. Consensus cluster analysis identified ferroptosis subclusters, and CIBERSORT assessed immune infiltration of these subclusters. Finally, RT-qPCR validated hub FRG expression in clinical tissues.

Results

We identified two ferroptosis modules of endometriosis, and by enrichment analysis, they are closely linked with autophagy, mTOR, oxidative stress, and FOXO pathways. Furthermore, we identified 10 hub FRGs, and the ROC curve showed better predictive ability for diagnosing. RT-qPCR confirmed that the tissue expression of 10 hub FRGs was mostly consistent with the database results. Subsequently, we developed a ceRNA network based on 4 FRGs (BECN1, OSBPL9, TGFBR1, GSK3B). Next, we identified two ferroptosis subclusters of endometriosis and discovered that they are closely linked with endometriosis stage. Importantly, immune enrichment analysis illustrated that the expression levels of immune cells and immune checkpoint genes were significantly different in the two ferroptosis subclusters. Specifically, the ferroptosis subcluster with stage III-IV of endometriosis is more inclined to the immunosuppressive microenvironment.

Conclusions

Our study showed that ferroptosis may jointly promote endometriosis progression by remodeling the immune microenvironment, offering new insights into pathogenesis and therapeutics.

CISD2-mediated mitochondrial dysfunction and iron redistribution contributes to ferroptosis in arsenic-induced nonalcoholic steatohepatitis

Arsenic in the environment, such as sodium arsenic (NaAsO2), is a frequently occurring hazard that has been linked to nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH). Our prior research established the involvement of ferroptosis in arsenic-induced NASH, but the precise underlying mechanisms remain elusive. Here, we found that exposure to NaAsO2 had a suppressive effect on the expression of CDGSH iron-sulfur domain-containing protein 2 (CISD2) at the protein and gene levels, and overexpression of CISD2 inhibited NaAsO2-induced ferroptosis and NASH. Additionally, administration of NaAsO2 to hepatocytes triggered mitochondrial dysfunction, manifesting as the release of cytochrome c, impairment of the mitochondrial respiratory chain, and reduction in ATP synthesis. However, these adverse effects were alleviated through overexpression of CISD2. Intracellular iron redistribution was induced by overexpression of CISD2 and inhibited NaAsO2-induced ferroptosis. This inhibition was characterized by a reduction in cytoplasmic iron levels and an increase in mitochondrial iron levels. Our study demonstrated that NaAsO2 induced intracellular iron reorganization and mitochondrial dysfunction through CISD2 inhibition, leading to ferroptosis and NASH. This may provide a novel means of treatment of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease triggered by environmental factors.

RNA m6A modification in ferroptosis: implications for advancing tumor immunotherapy

The pursuit of innovative therapeutic strategies in oncology remains imperative, given the persistent global impact of cancer as a leading cause of mortality. Immunotherapy is regarded as one of the most promising techniques for systemic cancer therapies among the several therapeutic options available. Nevertheless, limited immune response rates and immune resistance urge us on an augmentation for therapeutic efficacy rather than sticking to conventional approaches. Ferroptosis, a novel reprogrammed cell death, is tightly correlated with the tumor immune environment and interferes with cancer progression. Highly mutant or metastasis-prone tumor cells are more susceptible to iron-dependent nonapoptotic cell death. Consequently, ferroptosis-induction therapies hold the promise of overcoming resistance to conventional treatments. The most prevalent post-transcriptional modification, RNA m6A modification, regulates the metabolic processes of targeted RNAs and is involved in numerous physiological and pathological processes. Aberrant m6A modification influences cell susceptibility to ferroptosis, as well as the expression of immune checkpoints. Clarifying the regulation of m6A modification on ferroptosis and its significance in tumor cell response will provide a distinct method for finding potential targets to enhance the effectiveness of immunotherapy. In this review, we comprehensively summarized regulatory characteristics of RNA m6A modification on ferroptosis and discussed the role of RNA m6A-mediated ferroptosis on immunotherapy, aiming to enhance the effectiveness of ferroptosis-sensitive immunotherapy as a treatment for immune-resistant malignancies.

ATM1, an essential conserved transporter in Apicomplexa, bridges mitochondrial and cytosolic [Fe-S] biogenesis

The Apicomplexa phylum encompasses numerous obligate intracellular parasites, some associated with severe implications for human health, including Plasmodium, Cryptosporidium, and Toxoplasma gondii. The iron-sulfur cluster [Fe-S] biogenesis ISC pathway, localized within the mitochondrion or mitosome of these parasites, is vital for parasite survival and development. Previous work on T. gondii and Plasmodium falciparum provided insights into the mechanisms of [Fe-S] biogenesis within this phylum, while the transporter linking mitochondria-generated [Fe-S] with the cytosolic [Fe-S] assembly (CIA) pathway remained elusive. This critical step is catalyzed by a well-conserved ABC transporter, termed ATM1 in yeast, ATM3 in plants and ABCB7 in mammals. Here, we identify and characterize this transporter in two clinically relevant Apicomplexa. We demonstrate that depletion of TgATM1 does not specifically impair mitochondrial metabolism. Instead, proteomic analyses reveal that TgATM1 expression levels inversely correlate with the abundance of proteins that participate in the transfer of [Fe-S] to cytosolic proteins at the outer mitochondrial membrane. Further insights into the role of TgATM1 are gained through functional complementation with the well-characterized yeast homolog. Biochemical characterization of PfATM1 confirms its role as a functional ABC transporter, modulated by oxidized glutathione (GSSG) and [4Fe-4S].

Dystroglycan-HSPG interactions provide synaptic plasticity and specificity

AIM

This study examined the roles of the laminin and proteoglycan receptor dystroglycan (DG) in extracellular matrix stabilization and cellular mechanosensory processes conveyed through communication between the extracellular matrix (ECM) and cytoskeleton facilitated by DG. Specific functional attributes of HS-proteoglycans (HSPGs) are conveyed through interactions with DG and provide synaptic specificity through diverse interactions with an extensive range of cell attachment and adaptor proteins which convey synaptic plasticity. HSPG-DG interactions are important in phototransduction and neurotransduction and facilitate retinal bipolar-photoreceptor neuronal signaling in vision. Besides synaptic stabilization, HSPG-DG interactions also stabilize basement membranes and the ECM and have specific roles in the assembly and function of the neuromuscular junction. This provides neuromuscular control of muscle systems that control conscious body movement as well as essential autonomic control of diaphragm, intercostal and abdominal muscles and muscle systems in the face, mouth and pharynx which assist in breathing processes. DG is thus a multifunctional cell regulatory glycoprotein receptor and regulates a diverse range of biological and physiological processes throughout the human body. The unique glycosylation of the αDG domain is responsible for its diverse interactions with ECM components in cell-ECM signaling. Cytoskeletal cell regulatory switches assembled by the βDG domain in its role as a nuclear scaffolding protein respond to such ECM cues to regulate cellular behavior and tissue homeostasis thus DG has fascinating and diverse roles in health and disease.

NL-1 Promotes PINK1-Parkin-Mediated Mitophagy Through MitoNEET Inhibition in Subarachnoid Hemorrhage

NL-1 is a mitoNEET ligand known for its antileukemic effects and has recently shown neuroprotective effects in an ischemic stroke model. However, its underlying process in subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) is still unclear. Thus, we aimed to investigate the possible mechanism of NL-1 after SAH in rats. 112 male adult Sprague-Dawley rats were used for experiments. SAH model was performed with endovascular perforation. Rats were dosed intraperitoneally (i.p.) with NL-1 (3 mg/kg, 10 mg/kg, 30 mg/kg) or a vehicle (10% DMSO aqueous solution) at 1 h after SAH. A novel mitophagy inhibitor liensinine (60 mg/kg) was injected i.p. 24 h before SAH. SAH grades, short-term and long-term neurological scores were measured for neurobehavior. TdTmediated dUTP nick end labeling (TUNEL) staining, dihydroethidium (DHE) staining and western blot measurements were used to detect the outcomes and mechanisms of NL-1 administration. NL-1 treatment significantly improved short-term neurological behavior in Modified Garcia and beam balance sores in comparison with SAH + vehicle group. NL-1 administration also increased mitoNEET which induced phosphatase and tensin-induced kinase 1 (PINK1), Parkin and LC3II related mitophagy compared with SAH + vehicle group. In addition, the expressions of apoptotic protein Cleaved Caspase-3 and oxidative stress related protein Romo1 in NL-1 treatment group were reversed from SAH + vehicle group. Meanwhile, NL-1 treatment notably reduced TUNEL-positive cells, DHE-positive cells compared with SAH + vehicle group. NL-1 treatment notably improved long-term neurological behavior in rotarod and water maze tests compared to SAH + vehicle group. However, the administration of liensinine may inhibit the treatment effect of NL-1, leading to reduced expression of mitophagy markers Pink1, Parkin, LC3I/II, and increased expressions of Romo1 and Cleaved Caspase-3. NL-1 induced PINK1/PARKIN related mitophagy via mitoNEET, which reduced oxidative stress and apoptosis in early brain injury after SAH in rats. NL-1 may serve as a prospective drug for the treatment of SAH.

CISD3/MiNT is required for complex I function, mitochondrial integrity, and skeletal muscle maintenance

Mitochondria play a central role in muscle metabolism and function. A unique family of iron-sulfur proteins, termed CDGSH Iron Sulfur Domain-containing (CISD/NEET) proteins, support mitochondrial function in skeletal muscles. The abundance of these proteins declines during aging leading to muscle degeneration. Although the function of the outer mitochondrial CISD/NEET proteins, CISD1/mitoNEET and CISD2/NAF-1, has been defined in skeletal muscle cells, the role of the inner mitochondrial CISD protein, CISD3/MiNT, is currently unknown. Here, we show that CISD3 deficiency in mice results in muscle atrophy that shares proteomic features with Duchenne muscular dystrophy. We further reveal that CISD3 deficiency impairs the function and structure of skeletal muscles, as well as their mitochondria, and that CISD3 interacts with, and donates its [2Fe-2S] clusters to, complex I respiratory chain subunit NADH Ubiquinone Oxidoreductase Core Subunit V2 (NDUFV2). Using coevolutionary and structural computational tools, we model a CISD3-NDUFV2 complex with proximal coevolving residue interactions conducive of [2Fe-2S] cluster transfer reactions, placing the clusters of the two proteins 10 to 16 Å apart. Taken together, our findings reveal that CISD3/MiNT is important for supporting the biogenesis and function of complex I, essential for muscle maintenance and function. Interventions that target CISD3 could therefore impact different muscle degeneration syndromes, aging, and related conditions.

Ferroptosis in cancer: From molecular mechanisms to therapeutic strategies

Ferroptosis is a non-apoptotic form of regulated cell death characterized by the lethal accumulation of iron-dependent membrane-localized lipid peroxides. It acts as an innate tumor suppressor mechanism and participates in the biological processes of tumors. Intriguingly, mesenchymal and dedifferentiated cancer cells, which are usually resistant to apoptosis and traditional therapies, are exquisitely vulnerable to ferroptosis, further underscoring its potential as a treatment approach for cancers, especially for refractory cancers. However, the impact of ferroptosis on cancer extends beyond its direct cytotoxic effect on tumor cells. Ferroptosis induction not only inhibits cancer but also promotes cancer development due to its potential negative impact on anticancer immunity. Thus, a comprehensive understanding of the role of ferroptosis in cancer is crucial for the successful translation of ferroptosis therapy from the laboratory to clinical applications. In this review, we provide an overview of the recent advancements in understanding ferroptosis in cancer, covering molecular mechanisms, biological functions, regulatory pathways, and interactions with the tumor microenvironment. We also summarize the potential applications of ferroptosis induction in immunotherapy, radiotherapy, and systemic therapy, as well as ferroptosis inhibition for cancer treatment in various conditions. We finally discuss ferroptosis markers, the current challenges and future directions of ferroptosis in the treatment of cancer.

Biochemical and cellular characterization of the CISD3 protein: Molecular bases of cluster release and destabilizing effects of nitric oxide

The NEET proteins, an important family of iron-sulfur (Fe-S) proteins, have generated a strong interest due to their involvement in diverse diseases such as cancer, diabetes, and neurodegenerative disorders. Among the human NEET proteins, CISD3 has been the least studied, and its functional role is still largely unknown. We have investigated the biochemical features of CISD3 at the atomic and in cellulo levels upon challenge with different stress conditions i.e., iron deficiency, exposure to hydrogen peroxide, and nitric oxide. The redox and cellular stability properties of the protein agree on a predominance of reduced form of CISD3 in the cells. Upon the addition of iron chelators, CISD3 loses its Fe-S clusters and becomes unstructured, and its cellular level drastically decreases. Chemical shift perturbation measurements suggest that, upon cluster oxidation, the protein undergoes a conformational change at the C-terminal CDGSH domain, which determines the instability of the oxidized state. This redox-associated conformational change may be the source of cooperative electron transfer via the two [Fe2S2] clusters in CISD3, which displays a single sharp voltammetric signal at -31 mV versus SHE. Oxidized CISD3 is particularly sensitive to the presence of hydrogen peroxide in vitro, whereas only the reduced form is able to bind nitric oxide. Paramagnetic NMR provides clear evidence that, upon NO binding, the cluster is disassembled but iron ions are still bound to the protein. Accordingly, in cellulo CISD3 is unaffected by oxidative stress induced by hydrogen peroxide but it becomes highly unstable in response to nitric oxide treatment.

Multi-omics analysis reveals that ferroptosis-related gene CISD2 is a prognostic biomarker of head and neck squamous cell carcinoma

BACKGROUND

Head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) is a prevalent malignancy, with high mortality rate and unavailability of accurate therapies. However, its early prevention remains a challenge. In the purview of predictive, preventive, and personalized medicine (PPPM), it is paramount to identify novel and powerful biomarkers. CISD2 is a crucial regulator of iron homeostasis and reactive oxygen species (ROS). Recent studies showed that the NEET protein (NAF-1) encoded by CISD2 is involved in regulating the proliferation and metastasis of tumor cells. Nevertheless, the prognostic value and immunological correlations of CISD2 remain unclear.

METHODS

Bioinformatics analyses conducted utilizing data from comprehensive databases The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) and Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO). All statistical evaluations were executed employing R software.

RESULTS

Our investigation of biological function, enrichment pathway, and immune correlation revealed a discernable linkage between CISD2 and the immune response. Moreover, we found that the suppression of CISD2 is associated with immune cell infiltration and various immune signatures.

CONCLUSIONS

The present study successfully revealed the potential prognostic and biological function of CISD2 in HNSCC. High expression of CISD2 are linked to gender, race, grade, etc., can notably enhance the early detection, prognosis, and prediction for individuals afflicted with HNSCC.

Paramagnetic NMR to study iron sulfur proteins: 13C detected experiments illuminate the vicinity of the metal center

The robustness of NMR coherence transfer in proximity of a paramagnetic center depends on the relaxation properties of the nuclei involved. In the case of Iron-Sulfur Proteins, different pulse schemes or different parameter sets often provide complementary results. Tailored versions of HCACO and CACO experiments significantly increase the number of observed Cα/C' connectivities in highly paramagnetic systems, by recovering many resonances that were lost due to paramagnetic relaxation. Optimized 13C direct detected experiments can significantly extend the available assignments, improving the overall knowledge of these systems. The different relaxation properties of Cα and C' nuclei are exploited in CACO vs COCA experiments and the complementarity of the two experiments is used to obtain structural information. The two [Fe2S2]+ clusters containing NEET protein CISD3 and the one [Fe4S4]2+ cluster containing HiPIP protein PioC have been taken as model systems. We show that tailored experiments contribute to decrease the blind sphere around the cluster, to extend resonance assignment of cluster bound cysteine residues and to retrieve details on the topology of the iron-bound ligand residues.

Mitochondrial miR-12294-5p regulated copper-induced mitochondrial oxidative stress and mitochondrial quality control imbalance by targeted inhibition of CISD1 in chicken livers

Copper (Cu) is hazardous metal contaminant, which induced hepatotoxicity is closely related to mitochondrial disorder, but exact regulatory mechanism has not yet been revealed. Mitochondrial microRNAs (mitomiRs) are a novel and critical regulator of mitochondrial function and mitochondrial homeostasis. Hence, this study revealed the impact of Cu-exposure on mitomiR expression profiles in chicken livers, and further identified mitomiR-12294-5p and its target gene CISD1 as core regulators involved in Cu-induced hepatotoxicity. Additionally, our results showed that Cu-exposure induced mitochondrial oxidative damage, and mitochondrial quality control imbalance mediated by mitochondrial dynamics disturbances, mitochondrial biogenesis inhibition and abnormal mitophagy flux in chicken livers and primary chicken embryo hepatocytes (CEHs). Meaningfully, we discovered that inhibition of the expression of mitomiR-12294-5p effectively alleviated Cu-induced mitochondrial oxidative stress and mitochondrial quality control imbalance, while the up-regulation of mitomiR-12294-5p expression exacerbated Cu-induced mitochondrial damage. Simultaneously, the above Cu-induced mitochondrial damage can be effectively rescued by the overexpression of CISD1, while knockdown of CISD1 dramatically reverses the mitigating effect that inhibition of mitomiR-12294-5p expression on Cu-induced mitochondrial oxidative stress and mitochondrial quality control imbalance. Overall, these results suggested that mitomiR-12294-5p/CISD1 axis mediated mitochondrial damage is a novel molecular mechanism involved in regulating Cu-induced hepatotoxicity in chickens.

Mechanism of sorafenib resistance associated with ferroptosis in HCC

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the most familiar primary hepatic malignancy with a poor prognosis. The incidence of HCC and the associated deaths have risen in recent decades. Sorafenib is the first drug to be approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for routine use in the first-line therapy of patients with advanced HCC. However, only about 30% of patients with HCC will be benefited from sorafenib therapy, and drug resistance typically develops within 6 months. In recent years, the mechanisms of resistance to sorafenib have gained the attention of a growing number of researchers. A promising field of current studies is ferroptosis, which is a novel form of cell death differing from apoptosis, necroptosis, and autophagy. This process is dependent on the accumulation of intracellular iron and reactive oxygen species (ROS). Furthermore, the increase in intracellular iron levels and ROS can be significantly observed in cells resistant to sorafenib. This article reviews the mechanisms of resistance to sorafenib that are related to ferroptosis, evaluates the relationship between ferroptosis and sorafenib resistance, and explores new therapeutic approaches capable of reversing sorafenib resistance in HCC through the modulation of ferroptosis.

CISD3 is required for Complex I function, mitochondrial integrity, and skeletal muscle maintenance

Mitochondria play a central role in muscle metabolism and function. In skeletal muscles, a unique family of iron-sulfur proteins, termed CISD proteins, support mitochondrial function. The abundance of these proteins declines with aging leading to muscle degeneration. Although the function of the outer mitochondrial proteins CISD1 and CISD2 has been defined, the role of the inner mitochondrial protein CISD3, is currently unknown. Here we show that CISD3 deficiency in mice results in muscle atrophy that shares proteomic features with Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy. We further reveal that CISD3 deficiency impairs the function and structure of skeletal muscle mitochondria, and that CISD3 interacts with, and donates its clusters to, Complex I respiratory chain subunit NDUFV2. These findings reveal that CISD3 is important for supporting the biogenesis and function of Complex I, essential for muscle maintenance and function. Interventions that target CISD3 could therefore impact muscle degeneration syndromes, aging, and related conditions.

An essential role for an Fe-S cluster protein in the cytochrome c oxidase complex of Toxoplasma parasites

The mitochondrial electron transport chain (ETC) of apicomplexan parasites differs considerably from the ETC of the animals that these parasites infect, and is the target of numerous anti-parasitic drugs. The cytochrome c oxidase complex (Complex IV) of the apicomplexan Toxoplasma gondii ETC is more than twice the mass and contains subunits not found in human Complex IV, including a 13 kDa protein termed TgApiCox13. TgApiCox13 is homologous to a human iron-sulfur (Fe-S) cluster-containing protein called the mitochondrial inner NEET protein (HsMiNT) which is not a component of Complex IV in humans. Here, we establish that TgApiCox13 is a critical component of Complex IV in T. gondii, required for complex activity and stability. Furthermore, we demonstrate that TgApiCox13, like its human homolog, binds two Fe-S clusters. We show that the Fe-S clusters of TgApiCox13 are critical for ETC function, having an essential role in mediating Complex IV integrity. Our study provides the first functional characterisation of an Fe-S protein in Complex IV.

Targeting Iron-Sulfur Clusters in Cancer: Opportunities and Challenges for Ferroptosis-Based Therapy

Iron dysregulation is a hallmark of cancer, characterized by an overexpression of genes involved in iron metabolism and iron-sulfur cluster (ISC) biogenesis. Dysregulated iron homeostasis increases intracellular labile iron, which may lead to the formation of excess cytotoxic radicals and make it vulnerable to various types of regulated cell death, including ferroptosis. The inhibition of ISC synthesis triggers the iron starvation response, increasing lipid peroxidation and ferroptosis in cancer cells treated with oxidative stress-inducing agents. Various methods, such as redox operations, iron chelation, and iron replacement with redox-inert metals, can destabilize or limit ISC formation and function, providing potential therapeutic strategies for cancer treatment. Targeting ISCs to induce ferroptosis represents a promising approach in cancer therapy. This review summarizes the state-of-the-art overview of iron metabolism and ferroptosis in cancer cells, the role of ISC modulation in ferroptosis, and the potential of targeting ISCs for ferroptosis induction in cancer therapy. Further research is necessary to develop and validate these strategies in clinical trials for various cancers, which may ultimately lead to the development of novel and effective treatments for cancer patients.

Biochemical Control of the Mitochondrial Protein MitoNEET by Biological Thiols and Lipid-derived Electrophiles

MitoNEET is a mitochondrial [2Fe-2S] protein known for its involvement in cellular metabolism, iron regulation, and oxidative stress. The protein has been associated with diseases ranging from diabetes to Parkinson's disease which has prompted development of compounds designed to selectively target mitoNEET. Unfortunately, drug development is limited due to a lack of understanding on the mechanistic level how mitoNEET integrates into pathophysiological processes. In particular, biological compounds that govern mitoNEET function are still ill defined. We demonstrate an oxygen-dependent reaction with biological thiols catalyzed by mitoNEET. Furthermore, we observed that formation of a covalently linked mitoNEET homodimer is controlled by both thiols and lipid-derived electrophiles. Finally, we demonstrate that reduced glutathione (L-GSH) regulates the reactivity of two lipid-derived biomarkers of oxidative stress, 4-HNE and 4-ONE, towards mitoNEET. We find that exposure to L-GSH prior to treatment with either of the electrophilic aldehydes prevents the formation of the covalently linked mitoNEET dimer. Meanwhile, addition of L-GSH after electrophile treatment recovers mitoNEET from the 4-HNE induced modification but not from the modification induced by 4-ONE. Our results collectively suggest that the thiol-electrophile redox balance governing ferroptotic cell death also controls mitoNEET's state at multiple biochemical levels. These results indicate a possible role for mitoNEET in thiol-mediated oxidative stress and may inform about development of probes designed to modulate mitoNEET activity to improve pathophysiological states.

Ferroptosis: From Basic Research to Clinical Therapeutics in Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the most common and highly heterogeneous malignancies worldwide. Despite the rapid development of multidisciplinary treatment and personalized precision medicine strategies, the overall survival of HCC patients remains poor. The limited survival benefit may be attributed to difficulty in early diagnosis, the high recurrence rate and high tumor heterogeneity. Ferroptosis, a novel mode of cell death driven by iron-dependent lipid peroxidation, has been implicated in the development and therapeutic response of various tumors, including HCC. In this review, we discuss the regulatory network of ferroptosis, describe the crosstalk between ferroptosis and HCC-related signaling pathways, and elucidate the potential role of ferroptosis in various treatment modalities for HCC, such as systemic therapy, radiotherapy, immunotherapy, interventional therapy and nanotherapy, and applications in the diagnosis and prognosis of HCC, to provide a theoretical basis for the diagnosis and treatment of HCC to effectively improve the survival of HCC patients.

Advances in Iron Retrograde Signaling Mechanisms and Uptake Regulation in Photosynthetic Organisms

Iron (Fe) is an essential metal for the growth and development of different organisms, including plants and algae. This metal participates in different biological processes, among which are cellular respiration and photosynthesis. Fe is found associated with heme groups and as part of inorganic Fe-S groups as cofactors of numerous cellular proteins. Although Fe is abundant in soils, it is often not bioavailable due to soil pH. For this reason, photosynthetic organisms have developed different strategies for the uptake, the sensing of Fe intracellular levels but also different mechanisms that maintain and regulate adequate concentrations of this metal in response to physiological needs. This work focuses on discussing recent advances in the characterization of the mechanisms of Fe homeostasis and Fe retrograde signaling in photosynthetic organisms.

Role of Mitochondrial Iron Overload in Mediating Cell Death in H9c2 Cells

Iron overload (IO) is associated with cardiovascular diseases, including heart failure. Our study's aim was to examine the mechanism by which IO triggers cell death in H9c2 cells. IO caused accumulation of intracellular and mitochondrial iron as shown by the use of iron-binding fluorescent reporters, FerroOrange and MitoFerroFluor. Expression of cytosolic and mitochondrial isoforms of Ferritin was also induced by IO. IO-induced iron accumulation and cellular ROS was rapid and temporally linked. ROS accumulation was detected in the cytosol and mitochondrial compartments with CellROX, DCF-DA and MitoSOX fluorescent dyes and partly reversed by the general antioxidant N-acetyl cysteine or the mitochondrial antioxidant SkQ1. Antioxidants also reduced the downstream activation of apoptosis and lytic cell death quantified by Caspase 3 cleavage/activation, mitochondrial Cytochrome c release, Annexin V/Propidium iodide staining and LDH release of IO-treated cells. Finally, overexpression of MitoNEET, an outer mitochondrial membrane protein involved in the transfer of Fe-S clusters between mitochondrial and cytosol, was observed to lower iron and ROS accumulation in the mitochondria. These alterations were correlated with reduced IO-induced cell death by apoptosis in MitoNEET-overexpressing cells. In conclusion, IO mediates H9c2 cell death by causing mitochondrial iron accumulation and subsequent general and mitochondrial ROS upregulation.

The Intriguing mitoNEET: Functional and Spectroscopic Properties of a Unique [2Fe-2S] Cluster Coordination Geometry

Despite the number of cellular and pathological mitoNEET-related processes, very few details are known about the mechanism of action of the protein. The recently discovered existence of a link between NEET proteins and cancer pave the way to consider mitoNEET and its Fe-S clusters as suitable targets to inhibit cancer cell proliferation. Here, we will review the variety of spectroscopic techniques that have been applied to study mitoNEET in an attempt to explain the drastic difference in clusters stability and reactivity observed for the two redox states, and to elucidate the cellular function of the protein. In particular, the extensive NMR assignment and the characterization of first coordination sphere provide a molecular fingerprint helpful to assist the design of drugs able to impair cellular processes or to directly participate in redox reactions or protein-protein recognition mechanisms.

Structure-Based Screening Reveals a Ligand That Stabilizes the [2Fe-2S] Clusters of Human mitoNEET and Reduces Ovarian Cancer Cell Proliferation

Human NEET proteins play an important role in a variety of diseases, including cancer. Using the recently published X-ray structure of the human mNT-M1 complex, we screened a commercial chemical compound library and identified a new human mitoNEET (mNT) binding ligand (NTS-01). Biochemical investigations revealed that NTS-01 specifically binds to the human mNT protein and stabilizes its [2Fe-2S] clusters under oxidative conditions in vitro. Treatment of ovarian cancer cells with NTS-01 induces ovarian cancer (SKOV-3) mitochondrial fragmentation (fission) and reduces ovarian cancer cell proliferation in a 2D single-layer cell culture, as well as in a 3D-spheroids culture. The NTS-01 molecule represents therefore a new lead compound for further drug design studies attempting to develop efficient treatment against ovarian cancer.

Ferroptosis Signaling in Pancreatic β-Cells: Novel Insights & Therapeutic Targeting

Metabolic stress impairs pancreatic β-cell survival and function in diabetes. Although the pathophysiology of metabolic stress is complex, aberrant tissue damage and β-cell death are brought on by an imbalance in redox equilibrium due to insufficient levels of endogenous antioxidant expression in β-cells. The vulnerability of β-cells to oxidative damage caused by iron accumulation has been linked to contributory β-cell ferroptotic-like malfunction under diabetogenic settings. Here, we take into account recent findings on how iron metabolism contributes to the deregulation of the redox response in diabetic conditions as well as the ferroptotic-like malfunction in the pancreatic β-cells, which may offer insights for deciphering the pathomechanisms and formulating plans for the treatment or prevention of metabolic stress brought on by β-cell failure.

Iron-Sulfur Clusters: A Key Factor of Regulated Cell Death in Cancer

Iron-sulfur clusters are ancient cofactors that play crucial roles in myriad cellular functions. Recent studies have shown that iron-sulfur clusters are closely related to the mechanisms of multiple cell death modalities. In addition, numerous previous studies have demonstrated that iron-sulfur clusters play an important role in the development and treatment of cancer. This review first summarizes the close association of iron-sulfur clusters with cell death modalities such as ferroptosis, cuprotosis, PANoptosis, and apoptosis and their potential role in cancer activation and drug resistance. This review hopes to generate new cancer therapy ideas and overcome drug resistance by modulating iron-sulfur clusters.

MitoNEET's Reactivity of Lys55 toward Pyridoxal Phosphate Demonstrates its Activity as a Transaminase Enzyme

MitoNEET is a [2Fe-2S] redox active mitochondrial protein belonging to the CDGSH iron-sulfur domain (CISD) family of proteins. MitoNEET has been implicated as a potential target for drug development to treat various disorders, including type-2 diabetes, cancer, and Parkinson's disease. However, the specific cellular function(s) for mitoNEET still remains to be fully elucidated, and this presents a significant roadblock in rational drug development. Here, we show that mitoNEET binds the enzymatic cofactor pyridoxal phosphate (PLP) specifically at only one of its 11 lysine residues, Lys55. Lys55 is part of the soluble portion of the protein and is in a hydrogen-bonding network with the histidine residue that ligates the [2Fe-2S] cluster. In the presence of mitoNEET, PLP catalyzes the transamination reaction of the amino acid cysteine and the alpha-keto acid 2-oxoglutarate to form 3-mercaptopyruvate and glutamate. This work identifies, for the first time, mitoNEET as an enzyme with cysteine transaminase activity.

Inhibition of CISD2 promotes ferroptosis through ferritinophagy-mediated ferritin turnover and regulation of p62-Keap1-NRF2 pathway

BACKGROUND

CDGSH iron sulfur domain 2 (CISD2) is an iron-sulfur protein with a [2Fe-2S] cluster, which is critical for cell proliferation and iron homeostasis. It has been demonstrated that aberrant expression of CISD2 is associated with the progression of multiple cancers. However, the underlying mechanism of CISD2 in regulating tumorigenesis remains obscure.

METHODS

Bioinformatics strategies were used to investigate the protein interaction network and functional annotation of CISD2. In the functional experiment, cell viability was measured by CCK-8 kit. The levels of cellular reactive oxygen species (ROS), intracellular free iron, lipid peroxides, and lysosomal activity were determined by DCF-DA, RPA, C11-BODIPY, and cathepsin B staining, respectively. The glutathione (GSH) content was determined using a GSH assay kit.

RESULTS

We showed that knockdown of CISD2 significantly accelerated the Erastin-induced ferroptotic cell death with excess lipid peroxidation, GSH exhaustion, and iron accumulation, while overexpression of CISD2 hindered the sensitivity to Erastin. Further assays via confocal microscopy and western blot exhibited that CISD2 knockdown markedly enhanced the lysosomal activity, and activated ferritinophagy under the exposure of Erastin. Pharmacological inhibition of lysosomal function could inhibit the degradation of ferritin heavy chain (FTH), and attenuate the phenotypes of ferroptosis, such as accelerated iron accumulation and lipid peroxidation. Notably, we found that Erastin-induced compensatory elevation of nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (NRF2) could be eliminated in CISD2 depletion cells. Mechanically, CISD2 knockdown promoted the degradation of autophagy adaptor p62 and resulted in an increased binding affinity of Keap1 with NRF2, thus leading to the increased ubiquitination and subsequent degradation of NRF2. Enforced expression of NRF2 reversed the sensitivity of shCISD2 cells to ferroptosis both in vitro and in vivo. Conversely, enforced expression of Keap1 exacerbated the degradation of NRF2, reduced the transcriptional expression of FTH and heme oxygenase 1 (HO-1), increased the oxidative damage, and thus further facilitated ferroptosis.

CONCLUSION

Taken together, our current results illustrated two parallel mechanisms involved in the shCISD2-mediated ferroptosis. One was that shCISD2 enhanced the accumulation of free iron via ferritinophagy-dependent ferritin turnover; the other was that CISD2 depletion induced the inhibition of the p62-Keap1-NRF2 pathway, which resulted in oxidative stress and ferroptosis.

The Structures of Heterogeneous Membranes and Their Interactions with an Anticancer Peptide: A Molecular Dynamics Study

We conduct molecular dynamics simulations of model heterogeneous membranes and their interactions with a 24-amino acid peptide-NAF-144-67. NAF-144-67 is an anticancer peptide that selectively permeates and kills malignant cells; it does not permeate normal cells. We examine three membranes with different binary mixtures of lipids, DOPC-DOPA, DOPC-DOPS, and DOPC-DOPE, with a single peptide embedded in each as models for the diversity of biological membranes. We illustrate that the peptide organization in the membrane depends on the types of nearby phospholipids and is influenced by the charge and size of the head groups. The present study sheds light on early events of permeation and the mechanisms by which an amphiphilic peptide crosses from an aqueous solution to a hydrophobic membrane. Understanding the translocation mechanism is likely to help the design of new permeants.

Role of Iron-Related Oxidative Stress and Mitochondrial Dysfunction in Cardiovascular Diseases

Iron is indispensable in numerous biologic processes, but abnormal iron regulation and accumulation is related to pathological processes in cardiovascular diseases. However, the underlying mechanisms still need to be further explored. Iron plays a key role in metal-catalyzed oxidative reactions that generate reactive oxygen species (ROS), which can cause oxidative stress. As the center for oxygen and iron utilization, mitochondria are vulnerable to damage from iron-induced oxidative stress and participate in processes involved in iron-related damage in cardiovascular disease, although the mechanism remains unclear. In this review, the pathological roles of iron-related oxidative stress in cardiovascular diseases are summarized, and the potential effects and mechanisms of mitochondrial iron homeostasis and dysfunction in these diseases are especially highlighted.

Nitric oxide reversibly binds the reduced [2Fe-2S] cluster in mitochondrial outer membrane protein mitoNEET and inhibits its electron transfer activity

MitoNEET is a mitochondrial outer membrane protein that regulates energy metabolism, iron homeostasis, and production of reactive oxygen species in cells. Aberrant expression of mitoNEET in tissues has been linked to type II diabetes, neurodegenerative diseases, and several types of cancer. Structurally, the N-terminal domain of mitoNEET has a single transmembrane alpha helix that anchors the protein to mitochondrial outer membrane. The C-terminal cytosolic domain of mitoNEET hosts a redox active [2Fe-2S] cluster via an unusual ligand arrangement of three cysteine and one histidine residues. Here we report that the reduced [2Fe-2S] cluster in the C-terminal cytosolic domain of mitoNEET (mitoNEET45-108) is able to bind nitric oxide (NO) without disruption of the cluster. Importantly, binding of NO at the reduced [2Fe-2S] cluster effectively inhibits the redox transition of the cluster in mitoNEET45-108. While the NO-bound [2Fe-2S] cluster in mitoNEET45-108 is stable, light excitation releases NO from the NO-bound [2Fe-2S] cluster and restores the redox transition activity of the cluster in mitoNEET45-108. The results suggest that NO may regulate the electron transfer activity of mitoNEET in mitochondrial outer membrane via reversible binding to its reduced [2Fe-2S] cluster.

Ferroptosis in viral infection: the unexplored possibility

Virus-induced cell death has long been thought of as a double-edged sword in the inhibition or exacerbation of viral infections. The vital role of iron, an essential element for various enzymes in the maintenance of cellular physiology and efficient viral replication, places it at the crossroads and makes it a micronutrient of competition between the viruses and the host. Viruses can interrupt iron uptake and the antioxidant response system, while others can utilize iron transporter proteins as receptors. Interestingly, the unavailability of iron facilitates certain viral infections and causes cell death characterized by lipid peroxide accumulation and malfunction of the antioxidant system. In this review, we discuss how iron uptake, regulation and metabolism, including the redistribution of iron in the host defense system during viral infection, can induce ferroptosis. Fenton reactions, a central characteristic of ferroptosis, are caused by the increased iron content in the cell. Therefore, viral infections that increase cellular iron content or intestinal iron absorption are likely to cause ferroptosis. In addition, we discuss the hijacking of the iron regulatoy pathway and the antioxidant response, both of which are typical in viral infections. Understanding the potential signaling mechanisms of ferroptosis in viral infections will aid in the development of new therapeutic agents.

Inhibition of mitoNEET induces Pink1-Parkin-mediated mitophagy

MitoNEET, a mitochondrial outer membrane protein containing the Asn-Glu-Glu-Thr (NEET) sequence, controls the formation of intermitochondrial junctions and confers autophagy resistance. Moreover, mitoNEET as a mitochondrial substrate undergoes ubiquitination by activated Parkin during the initiation of mitophagy. Therefore, mitoNEET is linked to the regulation of autophagy and mitophagy. Mitophagy is the selective removal of the damaged or unnecessary mitochondria, which is crucial to sustaining mitochondrial quality control. In numerous human diseases, the accumulation of damaged mitochondria by impaired mitophagy has been observed. However, the therapeutic strategy targeting of mitoNEET as a mitophagy-enhancing mediator requires further research. Herein, we confirmed that mitophagy is indeed activated by mitoNEET inhibition. CCCP (carbonyl cyanide m-chlorophenyl hydrazone), which leads to mitochondrial depolarization, induces mitochondrial dysfunction and superoxide production. This, in turn, contributes to the induction of mitophagy; mitoNEET protein levels were initially increased before an increase in LC3-Ⅱ protein following CCCP treatment. Pharmacological inhibition of mitoNEET using mitoNEET Ligand-1 (NL-1) promoted accumulation of Pink1 and Parkin, which are mitophagy-associated proteins, and activation of mitochondria–lysosome crosstalk, in comparison to CCCP alone. Inhibition of mitoNEET using NL-1, or mitoNEET shRNA transfected into RAW264.7 cells, abrogated CCCP-induced ROS and mitochondrial cell death; additionally, it activated the expression of PGC-1α and SOD2, regulators of oxidative metabolism. In particular, the increase in PGC-1α, which is a major regulator of mitochondrial biogenesis, promotes mitochondrial quality control. These results indicated that mitoNEET is a potential therapeutic target in numerous human diseases to enhance mitophagy and protect cells by maintaining a network of healthy mitochondria.

Electron transfer activity of the nanodisc-bound mitochondrial outer membrane protein mitoNEET

MitoNEET is the first iron-sulfur protein found in mitochondrial outer membrane. Abnormal expression of mitoNEET in cells has been linked to several types of cancer, type II diabetes, and neurodegenerative diseases. Structurally, mitoNEET is anchored to mitochondrial outer membrane via its N-terminal single transmembrane alpha helix. The C-terminal cytosolic domain of mitoNEET binds a [2Fe-2S] cluster via three cysteine and one histidine residues. It has been shown that mitoNEET has a crucial role in energy metabolism, iron homeostasis, and free radical production in cells. However, the exact function of mitoNEET remains elusive. Previously, we reported that the C-terminal soluble domain of mitoNEET has a specific binding site for flavin mononucleotide (FMN) and can transfer electrons from FMNH2 to oxygen or ubiquinone-2 via its [2Fe-2S] cluster. Here we have constructed a hybrid protein using the N-terminal transmembrane domain of Escherichia coli YneM and the C-terminal soluble domain of human mitoNEET and assembled the hybrid protein YneM-mitoNEET into phospholipid nanodiscs. The results show that the [2Fe-S] clusters in the nanodisc-bound YneM-mitoNEET can be rapidly reduced by FMNH2 which is reduced by flavin reductase using NADH as the electron donor. Addition of lumichrome, a FMN analog, effectively inhibits the FMNH2-mediated reduction of the [2Fe-2S] clusters in the nanodisc-bound YneM-mitoNEET. The reduced [2Fe-2S] clusters in the nanodisc-bound YneM-mitoNEET are quickly oxidized by oxygen under aerobic conditions or by ubiquinone-10 in the nanodiscs under anaerobic conditions. Because NADH oxidation is required for cellular glycolytic activity, we propose that the mitochondrial outer membrane protein mitoNEET may promote glycolysis by transferring electrons from FMNH2 to oxygen or ubiquinone-10 in mitochondria.

A peptide-derived strategy for specifically targeting the mitochondria and ER of cancer cells: a new approach in fighting cancer

An effective anti-cancer therapy should exclusively target cancer cells and trigger in them a broad spectrum of cell death pathways that will prevent avoidance. Here, we present a new approach in cancer therapy that specifically targets the mitochondria and ER of cancer cells. We developed a peptide derived from the flexible and transmembrane domains of the human protein NAF-1/CISD2. This peptide (NAF-144-67) specifically permeates through the plasma membranes of human epithelial breast cancer cells, abolishes their mitochondria and ER, and triggers cell death with characteristics of apoptosis, ferroptosis and necroptosis. In vivo analysis revealed that the peptide significantly decreases tumor growth in mice carrying xenograft human tumors. Computational simulations of cancer vs. normal cell membranes reveal that the specificity of the peptide to cancer cells is due to its selective recognition of their membrane composition. NAF-144-67 represents a promising anti-cancer lead compound that acts via a unique mechanism.

Novel mitoNEET ligand NL-1 improves therapeutic outcomes in an aged rat model of cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury

Cerebral ischemic stroke is a leading cause of mortality and disability worldwide. Currently, there are a lack of drugs capable of reducing neuronal cell loss due to ischemia/reperfusion-injury after stroke. Previously, we identified mitoNEET, a [2Fe-2S] redox mitochondrial protein, as a putative drug target for ischemic stroke. In this study, we tested NL-1, a novel mitoNEET ligand, in a preclinical model of ischemic stroke with reperfusion using aged female rats. Using a transient middle cerebral artery occlusion (tMCAO), we induced a 2 h ischemic injury and then evaluated the effects of NL-1 treatment on ischemic/reperfusion brain injury at 24 and 72 h. Test compounds were administered at time of reperfusion via intravenous dosing. Results of the study demonstrated that NL-1 (10 mg/kg) treatment markedly improved survival and reduced infarct volume and hemispheric swelling in the brain as compared aged rats treated with vehicle or a lower dose of NL-1 (0.25 mg/kg). Interestingly, the protective effect of NL-1 was significantly improved when encapsulated in PLGA nanoparticles, where a 40-fold lesser dose (0.25 mg/kg) of NL-1 produced an equivalent effect as the 10 mg/kg dose. Evaluation of changes in blood-brain barrier permeability and lipid peroxidation corroborated the protective actions of NL-1 (10 mg/kg) or NL-1 NP treatment demonstrated a reduced accumulation of parenchymal IgG, decreased levels of 4-hydroxynonenal (4-HNE) and a decreased TUNEL positive cells in the brains of aged female rats at 72 h after tMCAO with reperfusion. Our studies indicate that targeting mitoNEET following ischemia/reperfusion-injury is a novel drug target pathway that warrants further investigation.

An anti-diabetic drug targets NEET (CISD) proteins through destabilization of their [2Fe-2S] clusters

Elevated levels of mitochondrial iron and reactive oxygen species (ROS) accompany the progression of diabetes, negatively impacting insulin production and secretion from pancreatic cells. In search for a tool to reduce mitochondrial iron and ROS levels, we arrived at a molecule that destabilizes the [2Fe-2S] clusters of NEET proteins (M1). Treatment of db/db diabetic mice with M1 improved hyperglycemia, without the weight gain observed with alternative treatments such as rosiglitazone. The molecular interactions of M1 with the NEET proteins mNT and NAF-1 were determined by X-crystallography. The possibility of controlling diabetes by molecules that destabilize the [2Fe-2S] clusters of NEET proteins, thereby reducing iron-mediated oxidative stress, opens a new route for managing metabolic aberration such as in diabetes.

Peptide Permeation across a Phosphocholine Membrane: An Atomically Detailed Mechanism Determined through Simulations and Supported by Experimentation

Cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) facilitate translocation across biological membranes and are of significant biological and medical interest. Several CPPs can permeate into specific cells and organelles. We examine the incorporation and translocation of a novel anticancer CPP in a dioleoylphosphatidylcholine (DOPC) lipid bilayer membrane. The peptide, NAF-144-67, is a short fragment of a transmembrane protein, consisting of hydrophobic N-terminal and charged C-terminal segments. Experiments using fluorescently labeled NAF-144-67 in ∼100 nm DOPC vesicles and atomically detailed simulations conducted with Milestoning support a model in which a significant barrier for peptide-membrane entry is found at the interface between the aqueous solution and membrane. The initial step is the insertion of the N-terminal segment and the hydrophobic helix into the membrane, passing the hydrophilic head groups. Both experiments and simulations suggest that the free energy difference in the first step of the permeation mechanism in which the hydrophobic helix crosses the phospholipid head groups is -0.4 kcal mol-1 slightly favoring motion into the membrane. Milestoning calculations of the mean first passage time and the committor function underscore the existence of an early polar barrier followed by a diffusive barrierless motion in the lipid tail region. Permeation events are coupled to membrane fluctuations that are examined in detail. Our study opens the way to investigate in atomistic resolution the molecular mechanism, kinetics, and thermodynamics of CPP permeation to diverse membranes.

The Intriguing Role of Iron-Sulfur Clusters in the CIAPIN1 Protein Family

Iron-sulfur (Fe/S) clusters are protein cofactors that play a crucial role in essential cellular functions. Their ability to rapidly exchange electrons with several redox active acceptors makes them an efficient system for fulfilling diverse cellular needs. They include the formation of a relay for long-range electron transfer in enzymes, the biosynthesis of small molecules required for several metabolic pathways and the sensing of cellular levels of reactive oxygen or nitrogen species to activate appropriate cellular responses. An emerging family of iron-sulfur cluster binding proteins is CIAPIN1, which is characterized by a C-terminal domain of about 100 residues. This domain contains two highly conserved cysteine-rich motifs, which are both involved in Fe/S cluster binding. The CIAPIN1 proteins have been described so far to be involved in electron transfer pathways, providing electrons required for the biosynthesis of important protein cofactors, such as Fe/S clusters and the diferric-tyrosyl radical, as well as in the regulation of cell death. Here, we have first investigated the occurrence of CIAPIN1 proteins in different organisms spanning the entire tree of life. Then, we discussed the function of this family of proteins, focusing specifically on the role that the Fe/S clusters play. Finally, we describe the nature of the Fe/S clusters bound to CIAPIN1 proteins and which are the cellular pathways inserting the Fe/S clusters in the two cysteine-rich motifs.

Anti-Inflammatory CDGSH Iron-Sulfur Domain 2: A Biomarker of Central Nervous System Insult in Cellular, Animal Models and Patients

Spinal cord injury (SCI) promotes brain inflammation; conversely, brain injury promotes spinal neuron loss. There is a need to identify molecular biomarkers and therapeutic targets for central nervous system (CNS) injury. CDGSH iron-sulfur structural domain 2 (CISD2), an NF-κB antagonist, is downregulated after injury in vivo and in vitro. We aimed to examine the diagnostic value of CISD2 in patients with CNS insult. Plasma and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) CISD2 levels were decreased in 13 patients with CNS insult and were negatively correlated with plasma IL6 levels (associated with disease severity; r = −0.7062; p < 0.01). SCI-induced inflammatory mediators delivered through CSF promoted mouse brain inflammation at 1 h post-SCI. Anti-CISD2 antibody treatment exacerbated SCI-induced inflammation in mouse spine and brain. Lipopolysaccharide-stimulated siCISD2-transfected EOC microglial cells exhibited proinflammatory phenotypes (enhanced M1 polarization, decreased M2 polarization, and increased intranuclear NF-κB p65 translocation). Plasma and CSF CISD2 levels were increased in three patients with CNS insult post-therapeutic hypothermia. CISD2 levels were negatively correlated with plasma and CSF levels of inflammatory mediators. CISD2 inhibition and potentiation experiments in cells, animals, and humans revealed CISD2 as a biomarker for CNS insult and upregulation of CISD2 anti-inflammatory properties as a potential therapeutic strategy for CNS insult.

The [2Fe-2S] protein CISD2 plays a key role in preventing iron accumulation in cardiomyocytes

Considered a key aging gene, CISD2, encoding CDGSH iron-sulfur domain-containing protein 2, plays a central role in regulating calcium homeostasis, preventing mitochondrial dysfunction, and the activation of autophagy and apoptosis in different cells. Here, we show that cardiomyocytes from CISD2-null mice accumulate high levels of iron and contain high levels of transferrin receptor and ferritin. Using proteomics and transmission electron microscopy, we further show that the lack of CISD2 induces several features of the aging process in young mice, but other features are not induced. Taken together, our findings suggest that CISD2 protects cardiomyocytes from overaccumulation of iron, which is common in aging hearts and can contribute to the pathogenesis of heart failure.

A VDAC1-mediated NEET protein chain transfers [2Fe-2S] clusters between the mitochondria and the cytosol and impacts mitochondrial dynamics

Here we address the important question of cross-talk between the mitochondria and cytosol. We show that the inner mitochondrial protein, MiNT, interacts with a protein on the outer mitochondrial membrane (mNT). This interaction occurs within the major outer membrane protein VDAC1. Inside the inner space of VDAC1, MiNT transfers its [2Fe-2S] clusters to mNT, which was shown to be a [2Fe-2S] cluster donor protein that donates its cluster(s) to apo-acceptor proteins residing in the cytosol. Hence, we suggest a pathway for transferring [2Fe-2S] clusters from inside the mitochondria to the cytosol.

Mitochondrial inner NEET (MiNT) and the outer mitochondrial membrane (OMM) mitoNEET (mNT) proteins belong to the NEET protein family. This family plays a key role in mitochondrial labile iron and reactive oxygen species (ROS) homeostasis. NEET proteins contain labile [2Fe-2S] clusters which can be transferred to apo-acceptor proteins. In eukaryotes, the biogenesis of [2Fe-2S] clusters occurs within the mitochondria by the iron–sulfur cluster (ISC) system; the clusters are then transferred to [2Fe-2S] proteins within the mitochondria or exported to cytosolic proteins and the cytosolic iron–sulfur cluster assembly (CIA) system. The last step of export of the [2Fe-2S] is not yet fully characterized. Here we show that MiNT interacts with voltage-dependent anion channel 1 (VDAC1), a major OMM protein that connects the intermembrane space with the cytosol and participates in regulating the levels of different ions including mitochondrial labile iron (mLI). We further show that VDAC1 is mediating the interaction between MiNT and mNT, in which MiNT transfers its [2Fe-2S] clusters from inside the mitochondria to mNT that is facing the cytosol. This MiNT–VDAC1–mNT interaction is shown both experimentally and by computational calculations. Additionally, we show that modifying MiNT expression in breast cancer cells affects the dynamics of mitochondrial structure and morphology, mitochondrial function, and breast cancer tumor growth. Our findings reveal a pathway for the transfer of [2Fe-2S] clusters, which are assembled inside the mitochondria, to the cytosol.

Clinically relevant mitochondrial-targeted therapy improves chronic outcomes after traumatic brain injury

Pioglitazone, an FDA-approved compound, has been shown to target the novel mitochondrial protein mitoNEET and produce short-term neuroprotection and functional benefits following traumatic brain injury. To expand on these findings, we now investigate the dose- and time-dependent effects of pioglitazone administration on mitochondrial function after experimental traumatic brain injury. We then hypothesize that optimal pioglitazone dosing will lead to ongoing neuroprotection and cognitive benefits that are dependent on pioglitazone-mitoNEET signalling pathways. We show that delayed intervention is significantly more effective than early intervention at improving acute mitochondrial bioenergetics in the brain after traumatic brain injury. In corroboration, we demonstrate that mitoNEET is more heavily expressed, especially near the cortical contusion, in the 18 h following traumatic brain injury. To explore whether these findings relate to ongoing pathological and behavioural outcomes, mice received controlled cortical impact followed by initiation of pioglitazone treatment at either 3 or 18 h post-injury. Mice with treatment initiation at 18 h post-injury exhibited significantly improved behaviour and tissue sparing compared to mice with pioglitazone initiated at 3 h post-injury. Further using mitoNEET knockout mice, we show that this therapeutic effect is dependent on mitoNEET. Finally, we demonstrate that delayed pioglitazone treatment improves serial motor and cognitive performance in conjunction with attenuated brain atrophy after traumatic brain injury. This study illustrates that mitoNEET is the critical target for delayed pioglitazone intervention after traumatic brain injury, mitochondrial-targeting is highly time-dependent after injury and there is an extended therapeutic window to effectively treat mitochondrial dysfunction after brain injury.

Iron Deficiency Caused by Intestinal Iron Loss-Novel Candidate Genes for Severe Anemia

The adult human body contains about 4 g of iron. About 1-2 mg of iron is absorbed every day, and in healthy individuals, the same amount is excreted. We describe a patient who presents with severe iron deficiency anemia with hemoglobin levels below 6 g/dL and ferritin levels below 30 ng/mL. Although red blood cell concentrates and intravenous iron have been substituted every month for years, body iron stores remain depleted. Diagnostics have included several esophago-gastro-duodenoscopies, colonoscopies, MRI of the liver, repetitive bone marrow biopsies, psychological analysis, application of radioactive iron to determine intact erythropoiesis, and measurement of iron excretion in urine and feces. Typically, gastrointestinal bleeding is a major cause of iron loss. Surprisingly, intestinal iron excretion in stool in the patient was repetitively increased, without gastrointestinal bleeding. Furthermore, whole exome sequencing was performed in the patient and additional family members to identify potential causative genetic variants that may cause intestinal iron loss. Under different inheritance models, several rare mutations were identified, two of which (in CISD1 and KRI1) are likely to be functionally relevant. Intestinal iron loss in the current form has not yet been described and is, with high probability, the cause of the severe iron deficiency anemia in this patient.

Disrupting CISD2 function in cancer cells primarily impacts mitochondrial labile iron levels and triggers TXNIP expression

The CISD2 (NAF-1) protein plays a key role in regulating cellular homeostasis, aging, cancer and neurodegenerative diseases. It was found to control different calcium, reactive oxygen species (ROS), and iron signaling mechanisms. However, since most studies of CISD2 to date were conducted with cells that constitutively lack, overexpress, or contain mutations in CISD2, the relationships between these different signaling processes are unclear. To address the hierarchy of signaling events occurring in cells upon CISD2 disruption, we developed an inducible system to express CISD2, or the dominant-negative H114C inhibitor of CISD2, in human breast cancer cells. Here, we report that inducible disruption of CISD2 function causes an immediate disruption in mitochondrial labile iron (mLI), and that this disruption results in enhanced mitochondrial ROS (mROS) levels. We further show that alterations in cytosolic and ER calcium levels occur only after the changes in mLI and mROS levels happen and are unrelated to them. Interestingly, disrupting CISD2 function resulted in the enhanced expression of the tumor suppressor thioredoxin-interacting protein (TXNIP) that was dependent on the accumulation of mLI and associated with ferroptosis activation. CISD2 could therefore regulate the expression of TXNIP in cancer cells, and this regulation is dependent on alterations in mLI levels.

Controlled Protonation of [2Fe-2S] Leading to MitoNEET Analogues and Concurrent Cluster Modification

MitoNEET, a key regulatory protein in mitochondrial energy metabolism, exhibits a uniquely ligated [2Fe-2S] cluster with one histidine and three cysteines. This unique cluster has been postulated to sense the redox environment and release Fe-S cofactors under acidic pH. Reported herein is a synthetic system that shows how [2Fe-2S] clusters react with protons and rearrange their coordination geometry. The low-temperature stable, site-differentiated clusters [Fe2S2(SPh)3(CF3COO)]2- and [Fe2S2(SPh)3(py)]- have been prepared via controlled protonation below -35 °C and characterized by NMR, UV-vis, and X-ray absorption spectroscopy. Both complexes exhibit anodically shifted redox potentials compared to [Fe2S2(SPh)4]2- and convert to [Fe4S4(SPh)4]2- upon warming to room temperature. The current study provides insight into how mitoNEET releases its [2Fe-2S] in response to highly tuned acidic conditions, the chemistry of which may have further implications in Fe-S biogenesis.

Sulfur Administration in Fe-S Cluster Homeostasis

Mitochondria are the key organelles of Fe–S cluster synthesis. They contain the enzyme cysteine desulfurase, a scaffold protein, iron and electron donors, and specific chaperons all required for the formation of Fe–S clusters. The newly formed cluster can be utilized by mitochondrial Fe–S protein synthesis or undergo further transformation. Mitochondrial Fe–S cluster biogenesis components are required in the cytosolic iron–sulfur cluster assembly machinery for cytosolic and nuclear cluster supplies. Clusters that are the key components of Fe–S proteins are vulnerable and prone to degradation whenever exposed to oxidative stress. However, once degraded, the Fe–S cluster can be resynthesized or repaired. It has been proposed that sulfurtransferases, rhodanese, and 3-mercaptopyruvate sulfurtransferase, responsible for sulfur transfer from donor to nucleophilic acceptor, are involved in the Fe–S cluster formation, maturation, or reconstitution. In the present paper, we attempt to sum up our knowledge on the involvement of sulfurtransferases not only in sulfur administration but also in the Fe–S cluster formation in mammals and yeasts, and on reconstitution-damaged cluster or restoration of enzyme’s attenuated activity.

Identification of the Prognostic Signature Associated With Tumor Immune Microenvironment of Uterine Corpus Endometrial Carcinoma Based on Ferroptosis-Related Genes

Background: Uterine corpus endometrial carcinoma (UCEC) is the sixth most common cancer worldwide. Ferroptosis plays an important role in malignant tumors. However, the study of ferroptosis in the endometrial carcinoma remains blank.

Methods: First, we constructed a ferroptosis-related signature based on the expression profiles from The Cancer Genome Atlas database. Then, patients were divided into the high-risk and low-risk groups based on this signature. The signature was evaluated by Kaplan–Meier analysis and receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis. We further investigated the relationship between this signature and immune microenvironment via CIBERSORT algorithm, ImmuCellAI, MAF, MSI sensor algorithm, GSEA, and GDSC.

Results: This signature could be an independent prognostic factor based on multivariate Cox regression analysis. GSEA revealed that this signature was associated with immune-related phenotype. In addition, we indicated the different status of immune infiltration and response to the immune checkpoint between low-risk and high-risk groups. Patients in the low-risk group were more likely to present with a higher expression of immune checkpoint molecules and tumor mutation burden. Meanwhile, the low-risk patients showed sensitive responses to chemotherapy drugs.

Conclusion: In summary, the six ferroptosis-related genes signature could be used in molecular subgrouping and accurately predict the prognosis of UCEC.