Decellularized matrices as in vitro models of extracellular matrix in tumor tissues at different malignant levels: Mechanism of 5-fluorouracil resistance in colorectal tumor cells

Intratumor transforming growth factor-β signaling with extracellular matrix-related gene regulation marks chemotherapy-resistant gastric cancer

Drug-tolerant persister (DTP) cells remain following chemotherapy and can cause cancer relapse. However, it is unclear when acquired resistance to chemotherapy emerges. Here, we compared the gene expression profiles of gastric cancer patient-derived cells (GC PDCs) and their respective xenograft tumors with different sensitivities to 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) by using immunodeficient female BALB/c-nu mice. RNA sequencing analysis of 5-FU-treated PDCs demonstrated that DNA replication/cell cycle-related genes were transiently induced in the earlier phase of DTP cell emergence, while extracellular matrix (ECM)-related genes were sustainably upregulated during long-term cell survival in 5-FU-resistant residual tumors. NicheNet analysis, which uncovers cell-cell signal interactions, indicated the transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) pathway as the upstream regulator in response to 5-FU treatment. This induced ECM-related gene expression in the 5-FU-resistant tumor model. In the 5-FU-resistant residual tumors, there was a marked upregulation of cancer cell-derived TGF-β1 expression and increased phosphorylation of SMAD3, a downstream regulator of the TGF-β receptor. By contrast, these responses were not observed in a 5-FU-sensitive tumor model. We further found that TGF-β-related upregulation of ECM genes was preferentially observed in non-responders to chemotherapy with 5-FU and/or oxaliplatin among 22 patient-derived xenograft tumors. These observations suggest that chemotherapy-induced activation of the TGF-β1/SMAD3/ECM-related gene axis is a potential biomarker for the emergence of drug resistance in GCs.

Establishment of a tissue-engineered colon cancer model for comparative analysis of cancer cell lines

To overcome the limitations of in vitro two-dimensional (2D) cancer models in mimicking the complexities of the native tumor milieu, three-dimensional (3D) engineered cancer models using biomimetic materials have been introduced to more closely recapitulate the key attributes of the tumor microenvironment. Specifically, for colorectal cancer (CRC), a few studies have developed 3D engineered tumor models to investigate cell-cell interactions or efficacy of anti-cancer drugs. However, recapitulation of CRC cell line phenotypic differences within a 3D engineered matrix has not been systematically investigated. Here, we developed an in vitro 3D engineered CRC (3D-eCRC) tissue model using the natural-synthetic hybrid biomaterial PEG-fibrinogen and three CRC cell lines, HCT 116, HT-29, and SW480. To better recapitulate native tumor conditions, our 3D-eCRC model supported higher cell density encapsulation (20 × 106  cells/mL) and enabled longer term maintenance (29 days) as compared to previously reported in vitro CRC models. The 3D-eCRCs formed using each cell line demonstrated line-dependent differences in cellular and tissue properties, including cellular growth and morphology, cell subpopulations, cell size, cell granularity, migration patterns, tissue growth, gene expression, and tissue stiffness. Importantly, these differences were found to be most prominent from Day 22 to Day 29, thereby indicating the importance of long-term culture of engineered CRC tissues for recapitulation and investigation of mechanistic differences and drug response. Our 3D-eCRC tissue model showed high potential for supporting future in vitro comparative studies of disease progression, metastatic mechanisms, and anti-cancer drug candidate response in a CRC cell line-dependent manner.

Decellularized diseased tissues: current state-of-the-art and future directions

Decellularized matrices derived from diseased tissues/organs have evolved in the most recent years, providing novel research perspectives for understanding disease occurrence and progression and providing accurate pseudo models for developing new disease treatments. Although decellularized matrix maintaining the native composition, ultrastructure, and biomechanical characteristics of extracellular matrix (ECM), alongside intact and perfusable vascular compartments, facilitates the construction of bioengineered organ explants in vitro and promotes angiogenesis and tissue/organ regeneration in vivo, the availability of healthy tissues and organs for the preparation of decellularized ECM materials is limited. In this paper, we review the research advancements in decellularized diseased matrices. Considering that current research focuses on the matrices derived from cancers and fibrotic organs (mainly fibrotic kidney, lungs, and liver), the pathological characterizations and the applications of these diseased matrices are mainly discussed. Additionally, a contrastive analysis between the decellularized diseased matrices and decellularized healthy matrices, along with the development in vitro 3D models, is discussed in this paper. And last, we have provided the challenges and future directions in this review. Deep and comprehensive research on decellularized diseased tissues and organs will promote in-depth exploration of source materials in tissue engineering field, thus providing new ideas for clinical transformation.

A novel ex vivo lung cancer model based on bioengineered rat lungs

Introduction: Two-dimensional cell cultures have contributed substantially to lung cancer research, but 3D cultures are gaining attention as a new, more efficient, and effective research model. A model reproducing the 3D characteristics and tumor microenvironment of the lungs in vivo, including the co-existence of healthy alveolar cells with lung cancer cells, is ideal. Here, we describe the creation of a successful ex vivo lung cancer model based on bioengineered lungs formed by decellularization and recellularization. Methods: Human cancer cells were directly implanted into a bioengineered rat lung, which was created with a decellularized rat lung scaffold reseeded with epithelial cells, endothelial cells and adipose-derived stem cells. Four human lung cancer cell lines (A549, PC-9, H1299, and PC-6) were applied to demonstrate forming cancer nodules on recellularized lungs and histopathological assessment were made among these models. MUC-1 expression analysis, RNA-seq analysis and drug response test were performed to demonstrate the superiority of this cancer model. Results: The morphology and MUC-1 expression of the model were like those of lung cancer in vivo. RNA sequencing revealed an elevated expression of genes related to epithelial-mesenchymal transition, hypoxia, and TNF-α signaling via NF-κB; but suppression of cell cycle-related genes including E2F. Drug response assays showed that gefitinib suppressed PC-9 cell proliferation equally well in the 3D lung cancer model as in 2D culture dishes, albeit over a smaller volume of cells, suggesting that fluctuations in gefitinib resistance genes such as JUN may affect drug sensitivity. Conclusions: A novel ex vivo lung cancer model was closely reproduced the 3D structure and microenvironment of the actual lungs, highlighting its possible use as a platform for lung cancer research and pathophysiological studies.

Evolving strategies and application of proteins and peptide therapeutics in cancer treatment

Several proteins and peptides have therapeutic potential and can be used for cancer therapy. By binding to cell surface receptors and other indicators uniquely linked with or overexpressed on tumors compared to healthy tissue, protein biologics enhance the active targeting of cancer cells, as opposed to the passive targeting of cells by conventional small-molecule chemotherapeutics. This study focuses on peptide medications that exist to slow or stop tumor growth and the spread of cancer, demonstrating the therapeutic potential of peptides in cancer treatment. As an alternative to standard chemotherapy, peptides that selectively kill cancer cells while sparing healthy tissue are developing. A mountain of clinical evidence supports the efficacy of peptide-based cancer vaccines. Since a single treatment technique may not be sufficient to produce favourable results in the fight against cancer, combination therapy is emerging as an effective option to generate synergistic benefits. One example of this new area is the use of anticancer peptides in combination with nonpeptidic cytotoxic drugs or the combination of immunotherapy with conventional therapies like radiation and chemotherapy. This review focuses on the different natural and synthetic peptides obtained and researched. Discoveries, manufacture, and modifications of peptide drugs, as well as their contemporary applications, are summarized in this review. We also discuss the benefits and difficulties of potential advances in therapeutic peptides.

Replacement, Reduction, and Refinement of Animal Experiments in Anticancer Drug Development: The Contribution of 3D In Vitro Cancer Models in the Drug Efficacy Assessment

In the last decades three-dimensional (3D) in vitro cancer models have been proposed as a bridge between bidimensional (2D) cell cultures and in vivo animal models, the gold standards in the preclinical assessment of anticancer drug efficacy. 3D in vitro cancer models can be generated through a multitude of techniques, from both immortalized cancer cell lines and primary patient-derived tumor tissue. Among them, spheroids and organoids represent the most versatile and promising models, as they faithfully recapitulate the complexity and heterogeneity of human cancers. Although their recent applications include drug screening programs and personalized medicine, 3D in vitro cancer models have not yet been established as preclinical tools for studying anticancer drug efficacy and supporting preclinical-to-clinical translation, which remains mainly based on animal experimentation. In this review, we describe the state-of-the-art of 3D in vitro cancer models for the efficacy evaluation of anticancer agents, focusing on their potential contribution to replace, reduce and refine animal experimentations, highlighting their strength and weakness, and discussing possible perspectives to overcome current challenges.

Research progress in decellularized extracellular matrix hydrogels for intervertebral disc degeneration

As one of the most common clinical disorders, low back pain (LBP) influences patient quality of life and causes substantial social and economic burdens. Many factors can result in LBP, the most common of which is intervertebral disc degeneration (IDD). The progression of IDD cannot be alleviated by conservative or surgical treatments, and gene therapy, growth factor therapy, and cell therapy have their own limitations. Recently, research on the use of hydrogel biomaterials for the treatment of IDD has garnered great interest, and satisfactory treatment results have been achieved. This article describes the classification of hydrogels, the methods of decellularized extracellular matrix (dECM) production and the various types of gel formation. The current research on dECM hydrogels for the treatment of IDD is described in detail in this article. First, an overview of the material sources, decellularization methods, and gel formation methods is given. The focus is on research performed over the last three years, which mainly consists of bovine and porcine NP tissues, while for decellularization methods, combinations of several approaches are primarily used. dECM hydrogels have significantly improved mechanical properties after the polymers are cross-linked. The main effects of these gels include induction of stem cell differentiation to intervertebral disc (IVD) cells, good mechanical properties to restore IVD height after polymer cross-linking, and slow release of exosomes. Finally, the challenges and problems still faced by dECM hydrogels for the treatment of IDD are summarised, and potential solutions are proposed. This paper is the first to summarise the research on dECM hydrogels for the treatment of IDD and aims to provide a theoretical reference for subsequent studies.

Curcumae longae Rhizoma (Jianghuang) extract reverses the 5-Fluoruracil resistance in colorectal cancer cells via TLR4/PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway

OBJECTIVES

Intensive efforts have been made in the area of identifying drug resistance modulators from traditional Chinese medicine. Various natural plant extracts have been reported for their reversal effect of drug resistance in cancers. This study was to assess the reversal potential of Curcumae longae Rhizoma extract (CLRE) in 5-Fluorouracil (5-Fu) resistance to colon cancer and explore its underly mechanism.

METHODS

Increased concentrations of 5-Fu were used to culture SW480. A series of concentrations of CLRE were used to treat the 5-Fu resistant SW480 cells. WST-8 assay was used to detect the cell viability. Cell apoptosis was assessed by SuperView™ 488 Caspase-3 Assay Kit. The quantification of mentioned factors was archived by RT-qPCR. Network pharmacology analysis was used to explore the target of CLRE.

RESULTS

5-Fu resistant cell line (SW480/5-FuR) was established. The IC50 value of CLRE against SW480/5-FuR was 181.0 ± 14.12 µg/ml. CLRE can resensitize the SW480/5-FuR to 5-Fu by inhibiting cell growth. The combination treatment (CLRE+5-Fu) induced cell apoptosis via inhibition of bcl-2 and activation of caspase-3 and bax. Three active ingredients from CLRE were identified. TLR4 was targeted by these three ingredients and linked these ingredients to PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway. The levels of TLR4, PI3K, AKT1, and mTORC1 mRNA were decreased when 5-Fu was combined with CLRE.

CONCLUSIONS

CLRE could reverse 5-Fu resistance in colon cancer by inactivating TLR4/PI3K/AKT/mTORC1 pathway. This finding might provide a molecular basis and a valuable direction for further clinical applications and research for treating 5-Fu resistant colon cancer.

Three-dimensional in vitro culture models in oncology research

Cancer is a multifactorial disease that is responsible for 10 million deaths per year. The intra- and inter-heterogeneity of malignant tumors make it difficult to develop single targeted approaches. Similarly, their diversity requires various models to investigate the mechanisms involved in cancer initiation, progression, drug resistance and recurrence. Of the in vitro cell-based models, monolayer adherent (also known as 2D culture) cell cultures have been used for the longest time. However, it appears that they are often less appropriate than the three-dimensional (3D) cell culture approach for mimicking the biological behavior of tumor cells, in particular the mechanisms leading to therapeutic escape and drug resistance. Multicellular tumor spheroids are widely used to study cancers in 3D, and can be generated by a multiplicity of techniques, such as liquid-based and scaffold-based 3D cultures, microfluidics and bioprinting. Organoids are more complex 3D models than multicellular tumor spheroids because they are generated from stem cells isolated from patients and are considered as powerful tools to reproduce the disease development in vitro. The present review provides an overview of the various 3D culture models that have been set up to study cancer development and drug response. The advantages of 3D models compared to 2D cell cultures, the limitations, and the fields of application of these models and their techniques of production are also discussed.

SNAI1-expressing fibroblasts and derived-extracellular matrix as mediators of drug resistance in colorectal cancer patients

Resistance to antitumor treatments is one of the most important problems faced by clinicians in the management of colorectal cancer (CRC) patients. Cancer-Associated Fibroblasts (CAFs) are the main producers and remodelers of the extracellular matrix (ECM), which is directly involved in drug resistance mechanisms. Primary Normal Fibroblasts (NFs) and CAFs and cell lines (fibroblasts and tumor cells), were used to generate ECM and to identify its role in the oxaliplatin and cetuximab chemoresistance processes of CRC cells mediated by SNAI1-expressing fibroblasts. Matrices generated by Snai1 KO MEFs (Knockout Mouse Embryonic Fibroblasts) confer less resistance on oxaliplatin and cetuximab than wild-type MEF-derived matrices. Similarly, matrices derived from CAFs cause greater survival of colorectal cancer cells than NF-derived matrices, in a similar way to Snai1 expression levels. In addition, Snail1 expression in fibroblasts regulates drug resistance and metabolism gene expression in tumor cells mediated by ECM. Finally, a series of 531 patients (TCGA) with CRC was used to assess the role of SNAI1 expression in patients' prognosis indicating an association between tumor SNAI1 expression and overall survival in colon cancer patients but not in rectal cancer patients. SNAI1 expression in CRC cancer patients, together with in vitro experimentation, suggests the possible use of SNAI1 expression in tumor-associated fibroblasts as a predictive biomarker of response to oxaliplatin and cetuximab treatments in patients with CRC.

Engineered colorectal cancer tissue recapitulates key attributes of a patient-derived xenograft tumor line

The development of physiologically relevantin vitrocolorectal cancer (CRC) models is vital for advancing understanding of tumor biology. Although CRC patient-derived xenografts (PDXs) recapitulate key patient tumor characteristics and demonstrate high concordance with clinical outcomes, the use of thisin vivomodel is costly and low-throughput. Here we report the establishment and in-depth characterization of anin vitrotissue-engineered CRC model using PDX cells. To form the 3D engineered CRC-PDX (3D-eCRC-PDX) tissues, CRC PDX tumors were expandedin vivo, dissociated, and the isolated cells encapsulated within PEG-fibrinogen hydrogels. Following PEG-fibrinogen encapsulation, cells remain viable and proliferate within 3D-eCRC-PDX tissues. Tumor cell subpopulations, including human cancer and mouse stromal cells, are maintained in long-term culture (29 days); cellular subpopulations increase ratiometrically over time. The 3D-eCRC-PDX tissues mimic the mechanical stiffness of originating tumors. Extracellular matrix protein production by cells in the 3D-eCRC-PDX tissues resulted in approximately 57% of proteins observed in the CRC-PDX tumors also being present in the 3D-eCRC-PDX tissues on day 22. Furthermore, we show congruence in enriched gene ontology molecular functions and Hallmark gene sets in 3D-eCRC-PDX tissues and CRC-PDX tumors compared to normal colon tissue, while prognostic Kaplan-Meier plots for overall and relapse free survival did not reveal significant differences between CRC-PDX tumors and 3D-eCRC-PDX tissues. Our results demonstrate high batch-to-batch consistency and strong correlation between ourin vitrotissue-engineered PDX-CRC model and the originatingin vivoPDX tumors, providing a foundation for future studies of disease progression and tumorigenic mechanisms.

MAIP1-Related Tumor Immune Infiltration: As a Potential Prognostic Biomarker for Esophageal Cancer

Background

Esophageal cancer (EC), a common malignant tumor of digestive tract, is also one of the most deadly cancers. Accumulating studies have shown that the initiating and progressing multiple human diseases were closely related to the expression of MAIP. However, the specific roles and mechanisms of MAIP1 in EC remain incompletely defined.

Purpose

This study aims to determine the clinical significance of MAIP1 in EC and explores its potential molecular mechanisms regulating tumor immune infiltration.

Methods

We obtained RNA-seq datasets and corresponding clinical data for EC patients from the Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database via the UCSC Xena browser to extract MAIP1 expression and plot survival curves to determine their prognosis. Based on the differential expression of MAIP1, EC patients were divided into high and low group to investigate the mechanism of MAIP1 in EC. In addition, the single sample gene set enrichment analysis (ssGSEA) quantified the expression of various immune cell signature marker genes and assessed the degree of immune infiltration in EC.

Results

In the TCGA-EC cohort, the overexpression of MAIP1 was observed in tumor tissues compared to normal tissues (p = 0.0038). Overall survival analysis showed that EC patients with the overexpression of MAIP1 presented a lower overall survival and worse prognosis (p = 0.004). Enrichment analysis revealed that the differential genes (DEGs) between high and low group are involved in biological functions such as extracellular matrix and organization extracellular structure. The results of ssGSEA showed that DCs, iDCs, macrophages, mast cells, and NK cells were significantly different in MAIP1^high and MAIP1^low groups, and all showed high expression in the MAIP1^low group.

Conclusion

We proposed that MAIP1 overexpression was associated with poor prognosis and tumor immune infiltration in EC. At present, there are few MAIP1-related tumor immune infiltration studies in EC, and further investigation is needed.

Personalized in vitro Extracellular Matrix Models of Collagen VI-Related Muscular Dystrophies

Collagen VI-related dystrophies (COL6-RDs) are a group of rare congenital neuromuscular dystrophies that represent a continuum of overlapping clinical phenotypes that go from the milder Bethlem myopathy (BM) to the severe Ullrich congenital muscular dystrophy, for which there is no effective treatment. Mutations in one of the three Collagen VI genes alter the incorporation of this protein into the extracellular matrix (ECM), affecting the assembly and the structural integrity of the whole fibrillar network. Clinical hallmarks of COL6-RDs are secondary to the ECM disruption and include muscle weakness, proximal joint contractures, and distal hyperlaxity. Although some traits have been identified in patients’ ECMs, a correlation between the ECM features and the clinical phenotype has not been established, mainly due to the lack of predictive and reliable models of the pathology. Herein, we engineered a new personalized pre-clinical model of COL6-RDs using cell-derived matrices (CDMs) technology to better recapitulate the complexity of the native scenario. We found that CDMs from COL6-RD patients presented alterations in ECM structure and composition, showing a significantly decreased Collagen VI secretion, especially in the more severe phenotypes, and a decrease in Fibrillin-1 inclusion. Next, we examined the Collagen VI-mediated deposition of Fibronectin in the ECM, finding a higher alignment, length, width, and straightness than in patients with COL6-RDs. Overall, these results indicate that CDMs models are promising tools to explore the alterations that arise in the composition and fibrillar architecture due to mutations in Collagen VI genes, especially in early stages of matrix organization. Ultimately, CDMs derived from COL6-RD patients may become relevant pre-clinical models, which may help identifying novel biomarkers to be employed in the clinics and to investigate novel therapeutic targets and treatments.

Decellularization of tumours: A new frontier in tissue engineering

Cancer is one of the leading causes of death worldwide. The tumour extracellular matrix (ECM) has unique features in terms of composition and mechanical properties, resulting in a structurally and chemically different ECM to that of native, healthy tissues. This paper reviews to date the efforts into decellularization of tumours, which in the authors’ view represents a new frontier in the ever evolving field of tumour tissue engineering. An overview of the ECM and its importance in cancer is given, ending with examples of research using decellularized tumours, which has already indicated potential therapeutic targets, unravelled malignancy mechanisms or response to chemotherapy agents. The review highlights that more research is needed in this area, which can answer important questions related to tumour formation and progression to ultimately identify new and effective therapeutic targets. Within the near-future of personalized medicine, this research can create patient-specific tumour models and therapeutic regimes.

Decellularized Colorectal Cancer Matrices as Bioactive Scaffolds for Studying Tumor-Stroma Interactions

More than a physical structure providing support to tissues, the extracellular matrix (ECM) is a complex and dynamic network of macromolecules that modulates the behavior of both cancer cells and associated stromal cells of the tumor microenvironment (TME). Over the last few years, several efforts have been made to develop new models that accurately mimic the interconnections within the TME and specifically the biomechanical and biomolecular complexity of the tumor ECM. Particularly in colorectal cancer, the ECM is highly remodeled and disorganized and constitutes a key component that affects cancer hallmarks, such as cell differentiation, proliferation, angiogenesis, invasion and metastasis. Therefore, several scaffolds produced from natural and/or synthetic polymers and ceramics have been used in 3D biomimetic strategies for colorectal cancer research. Nevertheless, decellularized ECM from colorectal tumors is a unique model that offers the maintenance of native ECM architecture and molecular composition. This review will focus on innovative and advanced 3D-based models of decellularized ECM as high-throughput strategies in colorectal cancer research that potentially fill some of the gaps between in vitro 2D and in vivo models. Our aim is to highlight the need for strategies that accurately mimic the TME for precision medicine and for studying the pathophysiology of the disease.

Monitoring decellularization via absorbance spectroscopy during the derivation of extracellular matrix scaffolds

Extracellular matrix (ECM) is a complex structure composed of bioactive molecules representative of the local tissue microenvironment. Decellularized ECM biomaterials harness these biomolecules for regenerative medicine applications. One potential therapeutic application is the use of vocal fold (VF) specific ECM to restore the VFs after injury. ECM scaffolds are derived through a process of decellularization, which aims to remove unwanted immunogenic biomolecules (e.g. DNA) while preserving the composition of the ECM. The effectiveness of the decellularization is typically assessed at the end by quantifying ECM attributes such as final dsDNA content. However, batch-to-batch variability in ECM manufacturing remains a significant challenge for the standardization, cost-effectiveness, and scale-up process. The limited number of tools available for in-process control heavily restricts the uncovering of the correlations between decellularization process parameters and ECM attributes. In this study, we developed a technique applicable to both the classical batch method and semi-continuous decellularization systems to trace the decellularization of two laryngeal tissues in real-time. We hypothesize that monitoring the bioreactor’s effluent absorbance at 260 nm as a function of time will provide a representative DNA release profile from the tissue and thus allow for process optimization. The DNA release profiles were obtained for laryngeal tissues and were successfully used to optimize the derivation of VF lamina propria-ECM (auVF-ECM) hydrogels. This hydrogel had comparable rheological properties to commonly used biomaterials to treat VF injuries. Also, the auVF-ECM hydrogel promoted the down-regulation of CCR7 by THP-1 macrophages upon lipopolysaccharide stimulation in vitro suggesting some anti-inflammatory properties. The results show that absorbance profiles are a good representation of DNA removal during the decellularization process thus providing an important tool to optimize future protocols.

Targeting the Microenvironment in Esophageal Cancer

Esophageal cancer (EC) is the eighth most common type of cancer and the sixth leading cause of cancer-related deaths worldwide. At present, the clinical treatment for EC is based mainly on radical surgery, chemotherapy, and radiotherapy. However, due to the limited efficacy of conventional treatments and the serious adverse reactions, the outcome is still unsatisfactory (the 5-year survival rate for patients is less than 25%). Thus, it is extremely important and urgent to identify new therapeutic targets. The concept of tumor microenvironment (TME) has attracted increased attention since it was proposed. Recent studies have shown that TME is an important therapeutic target for EC. Microenvironment-targeting therapies such as immunotherapy and antiangiogenic therapy have played an indispensable role in prolonging survival and improving the prognosis of patients with EC. In addition, many new drugs and therapies that have been developed to target microenvironment may become treatment options in the future. We summarize the microenvironment of EC and the latest advances in microenvironment-targeting therapies in this review.

Organ-Specific, Fibroblast-Derived Matrix as a Tool for Studying Breast Cancer Metastasis

Simple Summary

Cancer in the breast often spreads to other parts of the body, such as the lungs, which leads to poor outcomes for patients, as there are few effective treatments. Within organs such as the lungs, cancer cells are surrounded by a scaffold, made of proteins, which helps keeps the organs’ structure and maintains their function. This scaffold is produced by cells called fibroblasts, and we can reproduce this in the lab. We aim to investigate how cancer cells interact with the protein scaffold from different organs, where breast cancer cells spread to. This study hopes to reveal how breast cancer reacts to different organ environments and use this method to perform large-scale drug screening. Importantly, this study has shown that drug testing of breast cancer cells within a more physiological context, as opposed to testing on plastic, can lead to increased identification of targets to treat breast cancer.

Abstract

During the metastatic process, breast cancer cells must come into contact with the extra-cellular matrix (ECM) at every step. The ECM provides both structural support and biochemical cues, and cell–ECM interactions can lead to changes in drug response. Here, we used fibroblast-derived ECM (FDM) to perform high throughput drug screening of 4T1 breast cancer cells on metastatic organ ECM (lung), and we see that drug response differs from treatment on plastic. The FDMs that we can produce from different organs are abundant in and contains a complex mixture of ECM proteins. We also show differences in ECM composition between the primary site and secondary organ sites. Furthermore, we show that global kinase signalling of 4T1 cells on the ECM is relatively unchanged between organs, while changes in signalling compared to plastic are significant. Our study highlights the importance of context when testing drug response in vitro, showing that consideration of the ECM is critically important.

Research progress in decellularized extracellular matrix-derived hydrogels

Decellularized extracellular matrix (dECM) is widely used in regenerative medicine as a scaffold material due to its unique biological activity and good biocompatibility. Hydrogel is a three-dimensional network structure polymer with high water content and high swelling that can simulate the water environment of human tissues, has good biocompatibility, and can exchange nutrients, oxygen, and waste with cells. At present, hydrogel is the ideal biological material for tissue engineering. In recent years, rapid development of the hydrogel theory and technology and progress in the use of dECM to form hydrogels have attracted considerable attention to dECM hydrogels as an innovative method for tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. This article introduces the classification of hydrogels, and focuses on the history and formation of dECM hydrogels, the source of dECM, the application of dECM hydrogels in tissue engineering and the commercial application of dECM materials.

Extracellular Matrix: Emerging Roles and Potential Therapeutic Targets for Breast Cancer

Increasing evidence shows that the extracellular matrix (ECM) is an important regulator of breast cancer (BC). The ECM comprises of highly variable and dynamic components. Compared with normal breast tissue under homeostasis, the ECM undergoes many changes in composition and organization during BC progression. Induced ECM proteins, including fibrinogen, fibronectin, hyaluronic acid, and matricellular proteins, have been identified as important components of BC metastatic cells in recent years. These proteins play major roles in BC progression, invasion, and metastasis. Importantly, several specific ECM molecules, receptors, and remodeling enzymes are involved in promoting resistance to therapeutic intervention. Additional analysis of these ECM proteins and their downstream signaling pathways may reveal promising therapeutic targets against BC. These potential drug targets may be combined with new nanoparticle technologies. This review summarizes recent advances in functional nanoparticles that target the ECM to treat BC. Accurate nanomaterials may offer a new approach to BC treatment.

Emerging Biomimetic Materials for Studying Tumor and Immune Cell Behavior

Cancer is one of the leading causes of death both in the United States and worldwide. The dynamic microenvironment in which tumors grow consists of fibroblasts, immune cells, extracellular matrix (ECM), and cytokines that enable progression and metastasis. Novel biomaterials that mimic these complex surroundings give insight into the biological, chemical, and physical environment that cause cancer cells to metastasize and invade into other tissues. Two-dimensional (2D) cultures are useful for gaining limited information about cancer cell behavior; however, they do not accurately represent the environments that cells experience in vivo. Recent advances in the design and tunability of diverse three-dimensional (3D) biomaterials complement biological knowledge and allow for improved recapitulation of in vivo conditions. Understanding cell-ECM and cell-cell interactions that facilitate tumor survival will accelerate the design of more effective therapies. This review discusses innovative materials currently being used to study tumor and immune cell behavior and interactions, including materials that mimic the ECM composition, mechanical stiffness, and integrin binding sites of the tumor microenvironment.

Decellularized Extracellular Matrix for Bioengineering Physiomimetic 3D in Vitro Tumor Models

Recent advances in the extraction and purification of decellularized extracellular matrix (dECM) obtained from healthy or malignant tissues open new avenues for engineering physiomimetic 3D in vitro tumor models, which closely recapitulate key biomolecular hallmarks and the dynamic cancer cell-ECM interactions in the tumor microenvironment. We review current and upcoming methodologies for chemical modification of dECM-based biomaterials and advanced bioprocessing into organotypic 3D solid tumor models. A comprehensive review of disruptive advances and shortcomings of exploring dECM-based biomaterials for recapitulating the native tumor-supporting matrix is also provided. We hope to drive the discussion on how 3D dECM testing platforms can be leveraged for generating microphysiological tumor surrogates that generate more robust and predictive data on therapeutic bioperformance.

In Vitro Characterization of Cisplatin and Pemetrexed Effects in Malignant Pleural Mesothelioma 3D Culture Phenotypes

Malignant pleural mesothelioma (MPM) is an aggressive cancer with poor prognosis. The main treatment for MPM is doublet chemotherapy with Cisplatin and Pemetrexed, while ongoing trials test the efficacy of pemetrexed monotherapy. However, there is lack of evidence regarding the effects of Cisplatin and Pemetrexed on MPM cell phenotypes, especially in three-dimensional (3D) cell cultures. In this study, we evaluated the effects Cisplatin and Pemetrexed on cell viability using homologous cell derived extracellular matrix (hECM) as substratum and subsequently in the following 3D cell culture phenotypes: tumor spheroid formation, tumor spheroid invasion, and collagen gel contraction. We used benign mesothelial MeT-5A cells as controls and the MPM cell lines M14K (epithelioid), MSTO (biphasic), and ZL34 (sarcomatoid). Cell viability of all cell lines was significantly decreased with all treatments. Mean tumor spheroid perimeter was reduced after treatment with Pemetrexed or the doublet therapy in all cell lines, while Cisplatin reduced the mean spheroid perimeter of MeT-5A and MSTO cells. Doublet treatment reduced the invasive capacity of spheroids of cell lines into collagenous matrices, while Cisplatin lowered the invasion of the MSTO and ZL34 cell lines, and Pemetrexed lowered the invasion of MeT-5A and ZL34 cell lines. Treatment with Pemetrexed or the combination significantly reduced the collagen gel contraction of all cell lines, while Cisplatin treatment affected only the MeT-5A and M14K cells. The results of the current study can be used as an in vitro 3D platform for testing novel drugs against MPM for ameliorating the effects of first line chemotherapeutics.

Recent Trends in Decellularized Extracellular Matrix Bioinks for 3D Printing: An Updated Review

The promise of regenerative medicine and tissue engineering is founded on the ability to regenerate diseased or damaged tissues and organs into functional tissues and organs or the creation of new tissues and organs altogether. In theory, damaged and diseased tissues and organs can be regenerated or created using different configurations and combinations of extracellular matrix (ECM), cells, and inductive biomolecules. Regenerative medicine and tissue engineering can allow the improvement of patients' quality of life through availing novel treatment options. The coupling of regenerative medicine and tissue engineering with 3D printing, big data, and computational algorithms is revolutionizing the treatment of patients in a huge way. 3D bioprinting allows the proper placement of cells and ECMs, allowing the recapitulation of native microenvironments of tissues and organs. 3D bioprinting utilizes different bioinks made up of different formulations of ECM/biomaterials, biomolecules, and even cells. The choice of the bioink used during 3D bioprinting is very important as properties such as printability, compatibility, and physical strength influence the final construct printed. The extracellular matrix (ECM) provides both physical and mechanical microenvironment needed by cells to survive and proliferate. Decellularized ECM bioink contains biochemical cues from the original native ECM and also the right proportions of ECM proteins. Different techniques and characterization methods are used to derive bioinks from several tissues and organs and to evaluate their quality. This review discusses the uses of decellularized ECM bioinks and argues that they represent the most biomimetic bioinks available. In addition, we briefly discuss some polymer-based bioinks utilized in 3D bioprinting.

Addressing Patient Specificity in the Engineering of Tumor Models

Cancer treatment is challenged by the heterogeneous nature of cancer, where prognosis depends on tumor type and disease stage, as well as previous treatments. Optimal patient stratification is critical for the development and validation of effective treatments, yet pre-clinical model systems are lacking in the delivery of effective individualized platforms that reflect distinct patient-specific clinical situations. Advances in cancer cell biology, biofabrication, and microengineering technologies have led to the development of more complex in vitro three-dimensional (3D) models to act as drug testing platforms and to elucidate novel cancer mechanisms. Mostly, these strategies have enabled researchers to account for the tumor microenvironment context including tumor-stroma interactions, a key factor of heterogeneity that affects both progression and therapeutic resistance. This is aided by state-of-the-art biomaterials and tissue engineering technologies, coupled with reproducible and high-throughput platforms that enable modeling of relevant physical and chemical factors. Yet, the translation of these models and technologies has been impaired by neglecting to incorporate patient-derived cells or tissues, and largely focusing on immortalized cell lines instead, contributing to drug failure rates. While this is a necessary step to establish and validate new models, a paradigm shift is needed to enable the systematic inclusion of patient-derived materials in the design and use of such models. In this review, we first present an overview of the components responsible for heterogeneity in different tumor microenvironments. Next, we introduce the state-of-the-art of current in vitro 3D cancer models employing patient-derived materials in traditional scaffold-free approaches, followed by novel bioengineered scaffold-based approaches, and further supported by dynamic systems such as bioreactors, microfluidics, and tumor-on-a-chip devices. We critically discuss the challenges and clinical prospects of models that have succeeded in providing clinical relevance and impact, and present emerging concepts of novel cancer model systems that are addressing patient specificity, the next frontier to be tackled by the field.

Decellularized Extracellular Matrix for Cancer Research

Genetic mutation and alterations of intracellular signaling have been focused on to understand the mechanisms of oncogenesis and cancer progression. Currently, it is pointed out to consider cancer as tissues. The extracellular microenvironment, including the extracellular matrix (ECM), is important for the regulation of cancer cell behavior. To comprehensively investigate ECM roles in the regulation of cancer cell behavior, decellularized ECM (dECM) is now used as an in vitro ECM model. In this review, I classify dECM with respect to its sources and summarize the preparation and characterization methods for dECM. Additionally, the examples of cancer research using the dECM were introduced. Finally, future perspectives of cancer studies with dECM are described in the conclusions.

Maintenance of Primary Human Colorectal Cancer Microenvironment Using a Perfusion Bioreactor-Based 3D Culture System

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a leading cause of cancer-related death. Conventional chemotherapeutic regimens have limited success rates, and a major challenge for the development of novel therapies is the lack of adequate in vitro models. Nonmalignant mesenchymal and immune cells of the tumor microenvironment (TME) are known to critically affect CRC progression and drug responsiveness. However, tumor drug sensitivity is still evaluated on systems, such as cell monolayers, spheroids, or tumor xenografts, which typically neglect the original TME. Here, it is investigated whether a bioreactor-based 3D culture system can preserve the main TME cellular components in primary CRC samples. Freshly excised CRC fragments are inserted between two collagen scaffolds in a "sandwich-like" format and cultured under static or perfused conditions up to 3 d. Perfused cultures maintain tumor tissue architecture and densities of proliferating tumor cells to significantly higher extents than static cultures. Stromal and immune cells are also preserved and fully viable, as indicated by their responsiveness to microenvironmental stimuli. Importantly, perfusion-based cultures prove suitable for testing the sensitivity of primary tumor cells to chemotherapies currently in use for CRC. Perfusion-based culture of primary CRC specimens recapitulates TME key features and may allow assessment of tumor drug response in a patient-specific context.

The Role of Tumor Microenvironment in Chemoresistance: 3D Extracellular Matrices as Accomplices

BACKGROUND

The functional interplay between tumor cells and their adjacent stroma has been suggested to play crucial roles in the initiation and progression of tumors and the effectiveness of chemotherapy. The extracellular matrix (ECM), a complex network of extracellular proteins, provides both physical and chemicals cues necessary for cell proliferation, survival, and migration. Understanding how ECM composition and biomechanical properties affect cancer progression and response to chemotherapeutic drugs is vital to the development of targeted treatments.

METHODS

3D cell-derived-ECMs and esophageal cancer cell lines were used as a model to investigate the effect of ECM proteins on esophageal cancer cell lines response to chemotherapeutics. Immunohistochemical and qRT-PCR evaluation of ECM proteins and integrin gene expression was done on clinical esophageal squamous cell carcinoma biopsies. Esophageal cancer cell lines (WHCO1, WHCO5, WHCO6, KYSE180, KYSE 450 and KYSE 520) were cultured on decellularised ECMs (fibroblasts-derived ECM; cancer cell-derived ECM; combinatorial-ECM) and treated with 0.1% Dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), 4.2 µM cisplatin, 3.5 µM 5-fluorouracil and 2.5 µM epirubicin for 24 h. Cell proliferation, cell cycle progression, colony formation, apoptosis, migration and activation of signaling pathways were used as our study endpoints.

RESULTS

The expression of collagens, fibronectin and laminins was significantly increased in esophageal squamous cell carcinomas (ESCC) tumor samples compared to the corresponding normal tissue. Decellularised ECMs abrogated the effect of drugs on cancer cell cycling, proliferation and reduced drug induced apoptosis by 20⁻60% that of those plated on plastic. The mitogen-activated protein kinase-extracellular signal-regulated kinase (MEK-ERK) and phosphoinositide 3-kinase-protein kinase B (PI3K/Akt) signaling pathways were upregulated in the presence of the ECMs. Furthermore, our data show that concomitant addition of chemotherapeutic drugs and the use of collagen- and fibronectin-deficient ECMs through siRNA inhibition synergistically increased cancer cell sensitivity to drugs by 30⁻50%, and reduced colony formation and cancer cell migration.

CONCLUSION

Our study shows that ECM proteins play a key role in the response of cancer cells to chemotherapy and suggest that targeting ECM proteins can be an effective therapeutic strategy against chemoresistant tumors.

An extracellular matrix (ECM) model at high malignant colorectal tumor increases chondroitin sulfate chains to promote epithelial-mesenchymal transition and chemoresistance acquisition

Chemoresistance is one of the major barriers for tumor chemotherapy. It is clinically known that chemoresistance increases during tumor progression. Additionally, the extracellular matrix (ECM) is also remodeled during tumor progression. However, it remains unclear how ECM remodeling contributes to chemoresistance acquisition. Recently, it has been reported that epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) contributes to chemoresistance acquisition. Here, how ECM remodeling contributes to 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) resistance acquisition was investigated from the viewpoints of EMT using in vitro ECM models mimicking native ECM in colorectal tumor tissue at three different malignant levels. 5-FU partially induced EMT and increased ABCB1 in colorectal HT-29 cells via TGF-β signaling (an invasive tumor cell model). When HT-29 cells were cultured on an ECM model (high malignant matrices) mimicking native ECM in highly malignant tumor tissues, the cells facilitated TGF-β-induced EMT and increased ABCB1 upregulation compared with that of other ECM models mimicking the low malignant level and normal tissues. High malignant matrices contained more chondroitin sulfate (CS) chains than those of other ECM models. Finally, CS chain-reduced high malignant matrices could not facilitate ABCB1 upregulation and TGF-β-induced EMT. These results demonstrated that ECM remodeling during tumor progression increased CS chains to facilitate EMT and ABCB1 upregulation, contributing to chemoresistance acquisition.

Engineering 3D Hydrogels for Personalized In Vitro Human Tissue Models

There is a growing interest in engineering hydrogels for 3D tissue and disease models. The major motivation is to better mimic the physiological microenvironment of the disease and human condition. 3D tissue models derived from patients' own cells can potentially revolutionize the way treatment and diagnostic alternatives are developed. This requires development of tissue mimetic hydrogels with user defined and tunable properties. In this review article, a recent summary of 3D hydrogel platforms for in vitro tissue and disease modeling is given. Hydrogel design considerations and available hydrogel systems are summarized, followed by the types of currently available hydrogel models, such as bulk hydrogels, porous scaffolds, fibrous scaffolds, hydrogel microspheres, hydrogel sandwich systems, microwells, and 3D bioprinted constructs. Although hydrogels are utilized for a wide range of tissue models, this article focuses on liver and cancer models. This article also provides a detailed section on current challenges and future perspectives of hydrogel-based tissue models.

"Tissue Papers" from Organ-Specific Decellularized Extracellular Matrices

Using an innovative, tissue-independent approach to decellularized tissue processing and biomaterial fabrication, the development of a series of "tissue papers" derived from native porcine tissues/organs (heart, kidney, liver, muscle), native bovine tissue/organ (ovary and uterus), and purified bovine Achilles tendon collagen as a control from decellularized extracellular matrix particle ink suspensions cast into molds is described. Each tissue paper type has distinct microstructural characteristics as well as physical and mechanical properties, is capable of absorbing up to 300% of its own weight in liquid, and remains mechanically robust (E = 1-18 MPa) when hydrated; permitting it to be cut, rolled, folded, and sutured, as needed. In vitro characterization with human mesenchymal stem cells reveals that all tissue paper types support cell adhesion, viability, and proliferation over four weeks. Ovarian tissue papers support mouse ovarian follicle adhesion, viability, and health in vitro, as well as support, and maintain the viability and hormonal function of nonhuman primate and human follicle-containing, live ovarian cortical tissues ex vivo for eight weeks postmortem. "Tissue papers" can be further augmented with additional synthetic and natural biomaterials, as well as integrated with recently developed, advanced 3D-printable biomaterials, providing a versatile platform for future multi-biomaterial construct manufacturing.

The extracellular matrix of the gastrointestinal tract: a regenerative medicine platform

The synthesis and secretion of components that constitute the extracellular matrix (ECM) by resident cell types occur at the earliest stages of embryonic development, and continue throughout life in both healthy and diseased physiological states. The ECM consists of a complex mixture of insoluble and soluble functional components that are arranged in a tissue-specific 3D ultrastructure, and it regulates numerous biological processes, including angiogenesis, innervation and stem cell differentiation. Owing to its composition and influence on embryonic development, as well as cellular and organ homeostasis, the ECM is an ideal therapeutic substrate for the repair of damaged or diseased tissues. Biologic scaffold materials that are composed of ECM have been used in various surgical and tissue-engineering applications. The gastrointestinal (GI) tract presents distinct challenges, such as diverse pH conditions and the requirement for motility and nutrient absorption. Despite these challenges, the use of homologous and heterologous ECM bioscaffolds for the focal or segmental reconstruction and regeneration of GI tissue has shown promise in early preclinical and clinical studies. This Review discusses the importance of tissue-specific ECM bioscaffolds and highlights the major advances that have been made in regenerative medicine strategies for the reconstruction of functional GI tissues.

Cultured cell-derived decellularized matrices: a review towards the next decade

Summary of recent progress in cell-derived decellularized matrices preparation and application, with perspectives towards the next decade.

EFFECT OF PYRROLE DERIVATIVE ON THE RAT COLONIC MUCOSA COMPARED TO 5-FLUOROURACIL

Prevention the development of malignant tumors and treatment of cancer patients remains an important problem today. In spite of substantive progress in the cancer diagnostics and treatment cancer occupies one of the main places in human morbidity and mortality in the World. Targeted therapy is an alternative to traditional one through targeted action on tumor cells and relatively low toxicity. Inhibitor of membrane tyrosine kinases dihydropyrrole derivative 5-amino-4-(1,3-benzothiazole-2-yl)-1-(3- methoxyphenyl)-1,2-dihydro-3Н-pyrrol-3-one (D-1) has significant antitumor activity on colorectal cancer and low toxicity acting in effective dose. However, to assess the D-1 therapeutic gap the investigation of its higher doses is necessary. The investigation was aimed at D-1 effects applied at different doses compared to 5-fluorouracil one on rats ascending colon mucosa. The research has found out that the dihydropyrrole derivative has no damaging effect on the colon of rats, whereas the administration of 5-fluorouracil causes marked mucosal lesion of the ascending colon. Hereby D-1 low toxicity to ascending colon mucosa compared to 5-FU and wide therapeutic gap of the first was concluded.