Structures and dynamics of β-barrel oligomer intermediates of amyloid-beta16-22 aggregation

Proteomic Evidence for Amyloidogenic Cross-Seeding in Fibrinaloid Microclots

In classical amyloidoses, amyloid fibres form through the nucleation and accretion of protein monomers, with protofibrils and fibrils exhibiting a cross-β motif of parallel or antiparallel β-sheets oriented perpendicular to the fibre direction. These protofibrils and fibrils can intertwine to form mature amyloid fibres. Similar phenomena can occur in blood from individuals with circulating inflammatory molecules (and also some originating from viruses and bacteria). Such pathological clotting can result in an anomalous amyloid form termed fibrinaloid microclots. Previous proteomic analyses of these microclots have shown the presence of non-fibrin(ogen) proteins, suggesting a more complex mechanism than simple entrapment. We thus provide evidence against such a simple entrapment model, noting that clot pores are too large and centrifugation would have removed weakly bound proteins. Instead, we explore whether co-aggregation into amyloid fibres may involve axial (multiple proteins within the same fibril), lateral (single-protein fibrils contributing to a fibre), or both types of integration. Our analysis of proteomic data from fibrinaloid microclots in different diseases shows no significant quantitative overlap with the normal plasma proteome and no correlation between plasma protein abundance and their presence in fibrinaloid microclots. Notably, abundant plasma proteins like α-2-macroglobulin, fibronectin, and transthyretin are absent from microclots, while less abundant proteins such as adiponectin, periostin, and von Willebrand factor are well represented. Using bioinformatic tools, including AmyloGram and AnuPP, we found that proteins entrapped in fibrinaloid microclots exhibit high amyloidogenic tendencies, suggesting their integration as cross-β elements into amyloid structures. This integration likely contributes to the microclots' resistance to proteolysis. Our findings underscore the role of cross-seeding in fibrinaloid microclot formation and highlight the need for further investigation into their structural properties and implications in thrombotic and amyloid diseases. These insights provide a foundation for developing novel diagnostic and therapeutic strategies targeting amyloidogenic cross-seeding in blood clotting disorders.

Energy gap of conformational transition related with temperature for the NACore of α-synuclein

Pathological aggregation of α-synuclein (α-syn) into amyloid fibrils is a major feature of Parkinson's disease (PD). The self-assembly of α-syn is mainly governed by a non-amyloid-β component core (NACore). However, the effects of concentrations and temperatures on their conformational transition remain unclear. To answer this question, we investigated the aggregation kinetics of NACore oligomers in silico by performing several independent all-atom molecular dynamics simulations. The simulation results show that tetramers are more prone to form β-sheets at 300 K than dimers and octamers. We also found that the NACore oligomers had higher β-sheet and β-barrel contents at 310 K. The inter-chain hydrophobic interactions, the backbone hydrogen bonding, the residue-residue interactions between V70-V77 as well as V77-V77 play important roles in the aggregation tendency of NACore octamers at 310 K. Interestingly, the energy gap analysis revealed that the conformational transition of NACore oligomers from intermediate states (β-barrel conformation) to stable structures (β-sheet layers) was dependent on the temperatures. In short, our study provides insight into the kinetic and thermodynamic mechanisms of the conformational transition of NACore at different concentrations and temperatures, contributing to a better understanding of the aggregation process of α-syn in Parkinson's disease.

Structures and Dynamics of β-Rich Oligomers of ATTR (105-115) Assembly

Transthyretin (TTR) is a tetrameric homologous protein that can dissociate into monomers. Misfolding and aggregation of TTR can lead to amyloid transthyretin amyloidosis (ATTR), which can cause many diseases (e.g., senile systemic amyloidosis, familial amyloid cardiomyopathy, and familial amyloid polyneuropathy). Despite growing evidence indicating that small oligomers play a critical role in regulating cytotoxicity, the structures of these oligomeric intermediates and their conformational transformations are still unclear, impeding our understanding of neurodegenerative mechanisms and the development of therapeutics targeting early aggregation species. The TTR monomer protein consists of various fragments prone to self-aggregation, including the residue 105-115 sequence. Therefore, our study investigated the assembly progress of ATTR (105-115) peptides using all-atom molecular dynamics simulations. The findings indicate that the probability of β-sheet content increases with increasing numbers of peptides. Additionally, interactions between hydrophobic residues L110 and L111 are crucial for the formation of a β-rich oligomer formation. These β-rich oligomers may adopt β-barrel conformations, potentially toxic oligomer species. Free-energy analysis reveals that β-barrel conformations serve as intermediates for these β-rich oligomers. Our insights into the structural ensemble dynamics of ATTR (105-115) contribute to understanding the physical mechanisms underlying the β-barrel oligomers of ATTR. These findings may shed light on the pathological role of ATTR in neurodegenerative diseases and offer potential therapeutic targets.

Programming co-assembled peptide nanofiber morphology via anionic amino acid type: Insights from molecular dynamics simulations

Co-assembling peptides can be crafted into supramolecular biomaterials for use in biotechnological applications, such as cell culture scaffolds, drug delivery, biosensors, and tissue engineering. Peptide co-assembly refers to the spontaneous organization of two different peptides into a supramolecular architecture. Here we use molecular dynamics simulations to quantify the effect of anionic amino acid type on co-assembly dynamics and nanofiber structure in binary CATCH(+/-) peptide systems. CATCH peptide sequences follow a general pattern: CQCFCFCFCQC, where all C's are either a positively charged or a negatively charged amino acid. Specifically, we investigate the effect of substituting aspartic acid residues for the glutamic acid residues in the established CATCH(6E-) molecule, while keeping CATCH(6K+) unchanged. Our results show that structures consisting of CATCH(6K+) and CATCH(6D-) form flatter β-sheets, have stronger interactions between charged residues on opposing β-sheet faces, and have slower co-assembly kinetics than structures consisting of CATCH(6K+) and CATCH(6E-). Knowledge of the effect of sidechain type on assembly dynamics and fibrillar structure can help guide the development of advanced biomaterials and grant insight into sequence-to-structure relationships.

Multistep molecular mechanisms of Aβ16-22 fibril formation revealed by lattice Monte Carlo simulations

As a model of self-assembly from disordered monomers to fibrils, the amyloid-β fragment Aβ16-22 was subject to past numerous experimental and computational studies. Because dynamics information between milliseconds and seconds cannot be assessed by both studies, we lack a full understanding of its oligomerization. Lattice simulations are particularly well suited to capture pathways to fibrils. In this study, we explored the aggregation of 10 Aβ16-22 peptides using 65 lattice Monte Carlo simulations, each simulation consisting of 3 × 109 steps. Based on a total of 24 and 41 simulations that converge and do not converge to the fibril state, respectively, we are able to reveal the diversity of the pathways leading to fibril structure and the conformational traps slowing down the fibril formation.

Evolution of large Aβ16-22 aggregates at atomic details and potential of mean force associated to peptide unbinding and fragmentation events

Atomic characterization of large nonfibrillar aggregates of amyloid polypeptides cannot be determined by experimental means. Starting from β-rich aggregates of Y and elongated topologies predicted by coarse-grained simulations and consisting of more than 100 Aβ16-22 peptides, we performed atomistic molecular dynamics (MD), replica exchange with solute scaling (REST2), and umbrella sampling simulations using the CHARMM36m force field in explicit solvent. Here, we explored the dynamics within 3 μs, the free energy landscape, and the potential of mean force associated with either the unbinding of one single peptide in different configurations within the aggregate or fragmentation events of a large number of peptides. Within the time scale of MD and REST2, we find that the aggregates experience slow global conformational plasticity, and remain essentially random coil though we observe slow beta-strand structuring with a dominance of antiparallel beta-sheets over parallel beta-sheets. Enhanced REST2 simulation is able to capture fragmentation events, and the free energy of fragmentation of a large block of peptides is found to be similar to the free energy associated with fibril depolymerization by one chain for longer Aβ sequences.

Molecular insights into the oligomerization dynamics and conformations of amyloidogenic and non-amyloidogenic amylin from discrete molecular dynamics simulations

The amyloid aggregation of human islet amyloid polypeptide (hIAPP) is associated with pancreatic β-cell death in type 2 diabetes. The S20G substitution of hIAPP (hIAPP(S20G)), found in Japanese and Chinese people, is more amyloidogenic and cytotoxic than wild-type hIAPP. Rat amylin (rIAPP) does not have aggregation propensity or cytotoxicity. Mounting evidence suggests that soluble low-molecular-weight amyloid oligomers formed during early aggregation are more cytotoxic than mature fibrils. The self-assembly dynamics and oligomeric conformations remain unknown because the oligomers are heterogeneous and transient. The molecular mechanism of sequence-variation rendering dramatically different aggregation propensity and cytotoxicity is also elusive. Here, we investigate the oligomerization dynamics and conformations of amyloidogenic hIAPP, hIAPP(S20G), and non-amyloidogenic rIAPP using atomistic discrete molecular dynamics (DMD) simulations. Our simulation results demonstrated that all three monomeric amylin peptides mainly adopted an unstructured formation with partial dynamical helices near the N-terminus. Relatively transient β-hairpins were more abundant in hIAPP and hIAPP(S20G) than in rIAPP. The S20G-substituting mutant of hIAPP altered the turn region of the β-hairpin motif, resulting in more hydrophobic residue-pairwise contacts within the β-hairpin. Oligomerization dynamic investigation revealed that all three peptides spontaneously accumulated into helix-populated oligomers. The conformational conversion to form β-sheet-rich oligomers was only observed in hIAPP and hIAPP(S20G). The population of high-β-sheet-content oligomers was enhanced by S20G substitution. Interestingly, both hIAPP and hIAPP(S20G) could form β-barrel formations, and the β-barrel propensity of hIAPP(S20G) was three times larger than that of hIAPP. No β-sheet-rich or β-barrel formations were observed in rIAPP. Our direct observation of the correlation between β-barrel oligomer formation and cytotoxicity suggests that β-barrels might play a critically important role in the cytotoxicity of amyloidosis.

Exploring the misfolding and self-assembly mechanism of TTR (105–115) peptides by all-atom molecular dynamics simulation

Pathological aggregation of essentially dissociative Transthyretin (TTR) monomers protein, driven by misfolded and self-interaction, is connected with Amyloid Transthyretin amyloidosis (ATTR) disease. The TTR monomers protein contains several fragments that tend to self-aggregate, such as residue 105–115 sequence [TTR (105–115)]. However, the misfolding and aggregation mechanisms of TTR are still unknown. In this study, we explored the misfolding and self-assembly of TTR (105–115) peptides by all-atom molecular dynamics simulation. Our results indicated that the conformation of the two-peptides appears unstable. In the tetramerization and hexamerization simulations, the results are reversed. When the number of peptides increases, the probability and the length of β-Sheet contents increase. Our results show that that the four- and six-peptides both can form β-Barrel intermediates and then aggregate into fibers. The critical nucleation for the formation of fibril should be larger than four-peptides. The interactions between hydrophobic residues I107-L111 play an important role in the formation of stable fibrils at an early stage. Our results on the structural ensembles and early aggregation dynamics of TTR (105–115) will be useful to comprehend the nucleation and fibrillization of TTR (105–115).

Simulations of Cross-Amyloid Aggregation of Amyloid-β and Islet Amyloid Polypeptide Fragments

Amyloid-beta (Aβ) and islet amyloid polypeptide (IAPP) are small peptides, classified as amyloids, that have the potential to self-assemble and form cytotoxic species, such as small soluble oligomers and large insoluble fibrils. The formation of Aβ aggregates facilitates the progression of Alzheimer's disease (AD), while IAPP aggregates induce pancreatic β-cell apoptosis, leading to exacerbation of Type 2 diabetes (T2D). Cross-amyloid interactions between Aβ and IAPP have been described both in vivo and in vitro, implying the role of Aβ or IAPP as modulators of cytotoxic self-aggregation of each species, and suggesting that Aβ-IAPP interactions are a potential molecular link between AD and T2D. Using molecular dynamics simulations, "hot spot" regions of the two peptides were studied to understand the formation of hexamers in a heterogenous and homogenous peptide-containing environment. Systems of only Aβ_(16-22) peptides formed antiparallel, β-barrel-like structures, while systems of only IAPP_(20-29) peptides formed stacked, parallel beta sheets and had relatively unstable aggregation structures after 2 μs of simulation time. Systems containing both Aβ and IAPP (1:1 ratio) hexamers showed antiparallel, β-barrel-like structures, with an interdigitated arrangement of Aβ_(16-22) and IAPP_(20-29). These β-barrel structures have features of cytotoxic amyloid species identified in previous literature. Ultimately, this work seeks to provide atomistic insight into both the mechanism behind cross-amyloid interactions and structural morphologies of these toxic amyloid species.

Computer Simulations Aimed at Exploring Protein Aggregation and Dissociation

Protein aggregation can lead to well-defined structures that are functional, but is also the cause of the death of neuron cells in many neurodegenerative diseases. The complexity of the molecular events involved in the aggregation kinetics of amyloid proteins and the transient and heterogeneous characters of all oligomers prevent high-resolution structural experiments. As a result, computer simulations have been used to determine the atomic structures of amyloid proteins at different association stages as well as to understand fibril dissociation. In this chapter, we first review the current computer simulation methods used for aggregation with some atomistic and coarse-grained results aimed at better characterizing the early formed oligomers and amyloid fibril formation. Then we present the applications of non-equilibrium molecular dynamics simulations to comprehend the dissociation of protein assemblies.

Interactive Mechanism of Potential Inhibitors with Glycosyl for SARS-CoV-2 by Molecular Dynamics Simulation

Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is a type of Ribonucleic Acid (RNA) coronavirus and it has infected and killed many people around the world. It is reported that the receptor binding domain of the spike protein (S_RBD) of the SARS-CoV-2 virus is responsible for attachment to human angiotensin converting enzyme II (ACE2). Many researchers are attempting to search potential inhibitors for fighting SARS-CoV-2 infection using theoretical or experimental methods. In terms of experimental and theoretical research, Cefuroxime, Erythromycin, Lincomycin and Ofloxacin are the potential inhibitors of SARS-CoV-2. However, the interactive mechanism of the protein SARS-CoV-2 and the inhibitors are still elusive. Here, we investigated the interactions between S_RBD and the inhibitors using molecular dynamics (MD) simulations. Interestingly, we found that there are two binding sites of S_RBD for the four small molecules. In addition, our analysis also illustrated that hydrophobic and π-π stacking interactions play crucial roles in the interactions between S_RBD and the small molecules. In our work, we also found that small molecules with glycosyl group have more effect on the conformation of S_RBD than other inhibitors, and they are also potential inhibitors for the genetic variants of SARS-CoV-2. This study provides in silico-derived mechanistic insights into the interactions of S_RBD and inhibitors, which may provide new clues for fighting SARS-CoV-2 infection.

Effects of applied surface-tension on membrane-assisted Aβ aggregation

Accumulation of protein-based (Aβ) aggregates on cellular membranes with varying structural properties is commonly recognized as the key step in Alzheimer's pathogenesis. But experimental and computational challenges have made this biophysical characterization difficult. In particular, studies connecting biological membrane organization and Aβ aggregation are limited. While experiments have suggested that an increased membrane curvature results in faster Aβ peptide aggregation in the context of Alzheimer's disease, a mechanistic explanation for this relation is missing. In this work, we are leveraging molecular simulations with a physics-based coarse grained model to address and understand the relationships between curved cellular membranes and aggregation of a model template peptide Aβ 16-22. In agreement with experimental results, our simulations also suggest a positive correlation between increased peptide aggregation and membrane curvature. More curved membranes have higher lipid packing defects that engage peptide hydrophobic groups and promote faster diffusion leading to peptide fibrillar structures. In addition, we curated the effects of peptide aggregation on the membrane's structure and organization. Interfacial peptide aggregation results in heterogeneous headgroup-peptide interactions and an induced crowding effect at the lipid headgroup region, leading to a more ordered headgroup region and disordered lipid-tails at the membrane core. This work presents a mechanistic and morphological overview of the relationships between the biomembrane local structure and organization, and Aβ peptide aggregation.

Molecular Dynamics Simulations Reveal the Modulated Mechanism of STING Conformation

Stimulator of interferon genes (STING), which is an integral ER-membrane protein, could induce an antiviral state and boost antitumor immunity. Recent experiments reported that different small molecules could modulate the conformation of the STING. However, the mechanism of small molecules modulating the conformation of STING is still unknown. To illustrate the conformational modulated mechanism of STING by small molecules at atomic level, we investigated the interactions between STING and the small molecules: cGAMP and diABZI with molecular dynamics (MD) simulations method. Interestingly, we found that the residues of STING in the binding pocket are more flexible in the monomers of STING than that in the dimer of STING. We also demonstrated that cGAMP and diABZI have a similar binding mode to STING monomers/dimer, and π-π stacking interactions play important roles for the agonists and STING. Our study proposed mechanistic insights into the STING conformation modulated by small molecules and we suggested that the special molecule (e. g. diABZI) could induce the conformational transition of STING from the "open" monomers to the "closed" dimer state. Our research may provide a clue for the development of cancer immunotherapy.

Spontaneous Formation of β-sheet Nano-barrels during the Early Aggregation of Alzheimer's Amyloid Beta

Soluble low-molecular-weight oligomers formed during the early aggregation of amyloid peptides have been hypothesized as a major toxic species of amyloidogenesis. Herein, we performed the first synergic in silico, in vitro and in vivo validations of the structure, dynamics and toxicity of Aβ42 oligomers. Aβ peptides readily assembled into β-rich oligomers comprised of extended β-hairpins and β-strands. Nanosized β-barrels were observed with certainty with simulations, transmission electron microscopy and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, corroborated by immunohistochemistry, cell viability, apoptosis, inflammation, autophagy and animal behavior assays. Secondary and tertiary structural proprieties of these oligomers, such as the sequence regions with high β-sheet propensities and inter-residue contact frequency patterns, were similar to the properties known for Aβ fibrils. The unambiguous spontaneous formation of β-barrels in the early aggregation of Aβ42 supports their roles as the common toxic intermediates in Alzheimer's pathobiology and a target for Alzheimer's therapeutics.

Direct Observation of β-Barrel Intermediates in the Self-Assembly of Toxic SOD128-38 and Absence in Nontoxic Glycine Mutants

Soluble low-molecular-weight oligomers formed during the early stage of amyloid aggregation are considered the major toxic species in amyloidosis. The structure-function relationship between oligomeric assemblies and the cytotoxicity in amyloid diseases are still elusive due to the heterogeneous and transient nature of these aggregation intermediates. To uncover the structural characteristics of toxic oligomeric intermediates, we compared the self-assembly dynamics and structures of SOD1_28-38, a cytotoxic fragment of the superoxide dismutase 1 (SOD1) associated with the amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, with its two nontoxic mutants G33V and G33W using molecular dynamics simulations. Single-point glycine substitutions in SOD1_28-38 have been reported to abolish the amyloid toxicity. Our simulation results showed that the toxic SOD1_28-38 and its nontoxic mutants followed different aggregation pathways featuring distinct aggregation intermediates. Specifically, wild-type SOD1_28-38 initially self-assembled into random-coil-rich oligomers, among which fibrillar aggregates composed of well-defined curved single-layer β-sheets were nucleated via coil-to-sheet conversions and the formation of β-barrels as intermediates. In contrast, the nontoxic G33V/G33W mutants readily assembled into small β-sheet-rich oligomers and then coagulated with each other into cross-β fibrils formed by two-layer β-sheets without forming β-barrels as the intermediates. The direct observation of β-barrel oligomers during the assembly of toxic SOD1_28-38 fragments but not the nontoxic glycine-substitution mutants strongly supports β-barrels as the toxic oligomers in amyloidosis, probably via interactions with the cell membrane and forming amyloid pores. With well-defined structures, the β-barrel might serve as a novel therapeutic target against amyloid-related diseases.

Structural Insight into the Interactions between Structurally Similar Inhibitors and SIRT6

Sirtuin 6 (SIRT6) is an NAD+-dependent deacetylase with a significant role in 20% of all cancers, such as colon cancers and rectal adenocarcinoma. However, there is currently no effective drug for cancers related to SIRT6. To explore potential inhibitors of SIRT6, it is essential to reveal details of the interaction mechanisms between inhibitors and SIRT6 at the atomic level. The nature of small molecules from herbs have many advantages as inhibitors. Based on the conformational characteristics of the inhibitor Compound 9 (Asinex ID: BAS13555470), we explored the natural molecule Scutellarin, one compound of Huang Qin, which is an effective herb for curing cancer that has been described in the Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCMS) library. We investigated the interactions between SIRT6 and the inhibitors using molecular dynamics (MD) simulations. We illustrated that the structurally similar inhibitors have a similar binding mode to SIRT6 with residues—Leu9, Phe64, Val115, His133 and Trp188. Hydrophobic and π-stacking interactions play important roles in the interactions between SIRT6 and inhibitors. In summary, our results reveal the interactive mechanism of SIRT6 and the inhibitors and we also provide Scutellarin as a new potential inhibitor of SIRT6. Our study provides a new potential way to explore potential inhibitors from TCMS.

Thermo- and pH-responsive fibrillization of squid suckerin A1H1 peptide

Stimuli-responsive smart materials have attracted considerable attention with numerous applications in nanotechnology, sensing, and biomedicine. Suckerin family proteins found in squid ring teeth represent such a class of peptide-based smart materials with their self-assemblies featuring excellent thermo-plasticity and pH-dependence. Similar to block copolymers, suckerin proteins are comprised of two repeating sequence motifs, where M1 motifs are abundant in alanine and histidine residues and M2 are rich in glycine. Experimental studies of suckerin assemblies suggested that M1 regions mainly formed nano-confined β-sheets within an amorphous matrix made of M2 modules stabilizing these β-rich nano-assemblies. The histidine-containing M1 modules are believed to govern the pH- and temperature-sensitive properties of suckerin assemblies. To better understand the stimuli-responsive properties of suckerin assemblies at the molecular level, we systematically studied the self-assembly dynamics of A1H1 peptides - a representative M1 sequence - at different temperatures and pH conditions with atomistic discrete molecular dynamic simulations. Our simulations with twenty A1H1 peptides demonstrated that below the transition temperature Tagg, they could readily self-assemble from isolated monomers into well-defined β-sheet nanostructures by both primary and secondary nucleation of β-sheets and subsequent aggregation growth via elongation and coagulation. Interestingly, the dissociation of pre-formed A1H1 β-sheet nanostructures featured a melting temperature Tm higher than Tagg, exhibiting the thermal hysteresis that is characteristic of first-order phase transitions with high energy barriers. In acidic environments where all histidine residues were protonated, the stability of the A1H1 β-sheet nano-assemblies was reduced and the β-rich assemblies easily dissociated into unstructured monomers at significantly lower temperatures than in the neutral solution. The computationally derived molecular mechanisms for pH- and temperature-dependent A1H1 self-assembly will help to understand the supramolecular assembly structures and functions of the large suckerin family and aid in the future design of peptide-based stimuli-responsive smart materials.

Aggregation of disease-related peptides

Protein misfolding and aggregation of amyloid proteins is the fundamental cause of more than 20 diseases. Molecular mechanisms of the self-assembly and the formation of the toxic aggregates are still elusive. Computer simulations have been intensively used to study the aggregation of amyloid peptides of various amino acid lengths related to neurodegenerative diseases. We review atomistic and coarse-grained simulations of short amyloid peptides aimed at determining their transient oligomeric structures and the early and late aggregation steps.

ATP Controls the Aggregation of Aβ16-22 Peptides

The oligomerization of Aβ_16-22 peptide, which is the hydrophobic core region of full-length Aβ_1-42, causes Alzheimer's disease (AD). This progressive neurodegenerative disease affects over 44 million people worldwide. However, very few synthesized drug molecules are available to inhibit the aggregation of Aβ. Recently, experimental studies have shown that the biological ATP molecule prevents Aβ fibrillation at the millimolar scale; however, the significance of ATP molecules on Aβ fibrillation and the mechanism behind it remain elusive. We have carried out a total of 7.5 μs extensive all-atom molecular dynamics and 8.82 μs of umbrella sampling in explicit water using AMBER14SB, AMBER99SB-ILDN, and AMBER-FB15 force fields for Aβ_16-22 peptide, to investigate the role of ATP on the disruption of Aβ_16-22 prefibrils. From various analyses, such as secondary structure analysis, residue-wise contact map, SASA, and interaction energies, we have observed that, in the presence of ATP, the aggregation of Aβ_16-22 peptide is very unfavorable. Moreover, the biological molecule ATP interacts with the Aβ_16-22 peptide via hydrogen bonding, π-π stacking, and NH-π interactions which, ultimately, prevent the aggregation of Aβ_16-22 peptide. Hence, we assume that the deficiency of ATP may cause Alzheimer's disease (AD).

Amphiphilic surface chemistry of fullerenols is necessary for inhibiting the amyloid aggregation of alpha-synuclein NACore

Featuring small sizes, caged structures, low cytotoxicity and the capability to cross biological barriers, fullerene hydroxy derivatives named fullerenols have been explored as nanomedicinal candidates for amyloid inhibition. Understanding the surface chemistry effect of hydroxylation extents and the corresponding amyloid inhibition mechanisms is necessary for enabling applications of fullerenols and also future designs of nanomedicines in mitigating amyloid aggregation. Here, we investigated effects of C60(OH)n with n = 0-40 on the aggregation of NACore (the amyloidogenic core region of the non-amyloid-β component in α-synuclein), the amyloidogenic core of α-synuclein, by computational simulations, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, thioflavin-T (ThT) fluorescence kinetics and viability assays. Computationally, NACore assembled into cross-β aggregates via intermediates including β-barrels, which are postulated as toxic oligomers of amyloid aggregation. Hydrophobic C60 preferred to self-assemble, and NACore bound to the surface of C60 nano-clusters formed β-sheet rich aggregates - i.e., having little inhibition effect. Amphiphilic C60(OH)n with n = 4-20 displayed significant inhibition effects on NACore aggregation, where hydrogen bonding between hydroxyls and peptide backbones interrupted the formation of β-sheets between peptides adsorbed onto the surfaces of fullerenols or fullerenol nano-assemblies due to hydrophobic interactions. Thus, both cross-β aggregates and β-barrel intermediates were significantly suppressed. With hydroxyls increased to 40, fullerenols became highly hydrophilic with reduced peptide binding and thus an inhibition effect on amyloid aggregation. ThT, FTIR and TEM characterization of C60(OH)n with n = 0, 24, & 40 confirmed the computational predictions. Our results and others underscore the importance of amphiphilic surface chemistry and the capability of polar groups in forming hydrogen bonds with peptide backbones to render amyloid inhibition, offering a new insight for de-novo design of anti-amyloid inhibitors.

Amyloid Self-Assembly of hIAPP8-20 via the Accumulation of Helical Oligomers, α-Helix to β-Sheet Transition, and Formation of β-Barrel Intermediates

The self-assembly of human islet amyloid polypeptide (hIAPP) into β-sheet-rich nanofibrils is associated with the pathogeny of type 2 diabetes. Soluble hIAPP is intrinsically disordered with N-terminal residues 8-17 as α-helices. To understand the contribution of the N-terminal helix to the aggregation of full-length hIAPP, here the oligomerization dynamics of the hIAPP fragment 8-20 (hIAPP8-20) are investigated with combined computational and experimental approaches. hIAPP8-20 forms cross-β nanofibrils in silico from isolated helical monomers via the helical oligomers and α-helices to β-sheets transition, as confirmed by transmission electron microscopy, atomic force microscopy, circular dichroism spectroscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and reversed-phase high performance liquid chromatography. The computational results also suggest that the critical nucleus of aggregation corresponds to hexamers, consistent with a recent mass-spectroscopy study of hIAPP8-20 aggregation. hIAPP8-20 oligomers smaller than hexamers are helical and unstable, while the α-to-β transition starts from the hexamers. Converted β-sheet-rich oligomers first form β-barrel structures as intermediates before aggregating into cross-β nanofibrils. This study uncovers a complete picture of hIAPP8-20 peptide oligomerization, aggregation nucleation via conformational conversion, formation of β-barrel intermediates, and assembly of cross-β protofibrils, thereby shedding light on the aggregation of full-length hIAPP, a hallmark of pancreatic beta-cell degeneration.

Effects of a Hydrophilic/Hydrophobic Interface on Amyloid-β Peptides Studied by Molecular Dynamics Simulations and NMR Experiments

Oligomer formation of amyloid-β peptides (Aβ) is accelerated at a hydrophilic/hydrophobic interface. However, details of the acceleration mechanism have not been elucidated. To understand the effects of the interface on oligomerization at the atomic level, we performed molecular dynamics simulations for an Aβ40 monomer in the presence and absence of the hydrophilic/hydrophobic interface. Nuclear magnetic resonance experiments of Aβ40 peptides with gangliosidic micelles were also carried out. In the simulations and experiments, the hydrophobic residues of Aβ40 bound to the interface stably. Moreover, we found that Aβ40 formed a hairpin structure at the interface more readily than in bulk water. From these results, we discussed the acceleration mechanism of the oligomer formation at the interface.

Nucleation of β-rich oligomers and β-barrels in the early aggregation of human islet amyloid polypeptide

The self-assembly of human islet amyloid polypeptide (hIAPP) into β-sheet rich amyloid aggregates is associated with pancreatic β-cell death in type 2 diabetes (T2D). Prior experimental studies of hIAPP aggregation reported the early accumulation of α-helical intermediates before the rapid conversion into β-sheet rich amyloid fibrils, as also corroborated by our experimental characterizations with transmission electron microscopy and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. Although increasing evidence suggests that small oligomers populating early hIAPP aggregation play crucial roles in cytotoxicity, structures of these oligomer intermediates and their conformational conversions remain unknown, hindering our understanding of T2D disease mechanism and therapeutic design targeting these early aggregation species. We further applied large-scale discrete molecule dynamics simulations to investigate the oligomerization of full-length hIAPP, employing multiple molecular systems of increasing number of peptides. We found that the oligomerization process was dynamic, involving frequent inter-oligomeric exchanges. On average, oligomers had more α-helices than β-sheets, consistent with ensemble-based experimental measurements. However, in ~4-6% independent simulations, β-rich oligomers expected as the fibrillization intermediates were observed, especially in the pentamer and hexamer simulations. These β-rich oligomers could adopt β-barrel conformations, recently postulated to be the toxic oligomer species but only observed computationally in the aggregates of short amyloid protein fragments. Free-energy analysis revealed high energies of these β-rich oligomers, supporting the nucleated conformational changes of oligomers in amyloid aggregation. β-barrel oligomers of full-length hIAPP with well-defined three-dimensional structures may play an important pathological role in T2D etiology and may be a therapeutic target for the disease.

β-barrel Oligomers as Common Intermediates of Peptides Self-Assembling into Cross-β Aggregates

Oligomers populated during the early amyloid aggregation process are more toxic than mature fibrils, but pinpointing the exact toxic species among highly dynamic and heterogeneous aggregation intermediates remains a major challenge. β-barrel oligomers, structurally-determined recently for a slow-aggregating peptide derived from αB crystallin, are attractive candidates for exerting amyloid toxicity due to their well-defined structures as therapeutic targets and compatibility to the "amyloid-pore" hypothesis of toxicity. To assess whether β-barrel oligomers are common intermediates to amyloid peptides - a necessary step toward associating β-barrel oligomers with general amyloid cytotoxicity, we computationally studied the oligomerization and fibrillization dynamics of seven well-studied fragments of amyloidogenic proteins with different experimentally-determined aggregation morphologies and cytotoxicity. In our molecular dynamics simulations, β-barrel oligomers were only observed in five peptides self-assembling into the characteristic cross-β aggregates, but not the other two that formed polymorphic β-rich aggregates as reported experimentally. Interestingly, the latter two peptides were previously found nontoxic. Hence, the observed correlation between β-barrel oligomers formation and cytotoxicity supports the hypothesis of β-barrel oligomers as the common toxic intermediates of amyloid aggregation.