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Bishnoi IR, Ossenkopp KP, Kavaliers M. Sex and age differences in locomotor and anxiety-like behaviors in rats: From adolescence to adulthood. Dev Psychobiol 2020; 63:496-511. [PMID: 33047845 DOI: 10.1002/dev.22037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2020] [Revised: 08/10/2020] [Accepted: 08/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Risk-taking behaviors are a primary contributor to elevated adolescent injury and mortality. Locomotor and anxiety-like behaviors in rodents have been used to examine risk-taking. Here, we examined risk-taking behavior (i.e., changes in locomotor and anxiety-like behaviors) from early to late adolescence and adulthood in male and female rats in the open-field (OF) apparatus and the light-dark (LD) test. We also examined whether these behaviors are affected by an early adolescent immune stressor, lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Long-Evans male and female rats were injected with LPS (200 μg/kg) or vehicle control in early adolescence (postnatal day [PND] 30 and 32). Anxiety-like behavior and locomotor activity were measured in early (PND 38-40), late adolescence (PND 50), and adulthood (PND 88 and 98) in the OF and in early adolescence (PND 42) and adulthood (PND 90) in the LD test. Early and late adolescent rats displayed significantly greater locomotor and anxiety-like behaviors than adult rats in the OF and LD test. Sex differences were also found, with adolescent and adult females displaying greater locomotor and anxiety-like behaviors than male rats in the OF and LD tests. LPS administered two times in early adolescence did not have a significant impact on either locomotor or anxiety-like behaviors suggesting minimal impact of the immune stressor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Indra R Bishnoi
- Graduate Program in Neuroscience, Western University, London, ON, Canada.,Department of Psychology, Western University, London, ON, Canada
| | - Klaus-Peter Ossenkopp
- Graduate Program in Neuroscience, Western University, London, ON, Canada.,Department of Psychology, Western University, London, ON, Canada
| | - Martin Kavaliers
- Graduate Program in Neuroscience, Western University, London, ON, Canada.,Department of Psychology, Western University, London, ON, Canada
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Maternal Immune Activation Sensitizes Male Offspring Rats to Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Microglial Deficits Involving the Dysfunction of CD200-CD200R and CX3CL1-CX3CR1 Systems. Cells 2020; 9:cells9071676. [PMID: 32664639 PMCID: PMC7407118 DOI: 10.3390/cells9071676] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2020] [Revised: 07/09/2020] [Accepted: 07/09/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Early life challenges resulting from maternal immune activation (MIA) may exert persistent effects on the offspring, including the development of psychiatric disorders, such as schizophrenia. Recent evidence has suggested that the adverse effects of MIA may be mediated by neuron-microglia crosstalk, particularly CX3CL1-CX3CR1 and CD200-CD200R dyads. Therefore, the present study assessed the behavioural parameters resembling schizophrenia-like symptoms in the adult male offspring of Sprague-Dawley rats that were exposed to MIA and to an additional acute lipopolysaccharide (LPS) challenge in adulthood, according to the "two-hit" hypothesis of schizophrenia. Simultaneously, we aimed to clarify the role of the CX3CL1-CX3CR1 and CD200-CD200R axes and microglial reactivity in the brains of adult offspring subjected to MIA and the "second hit" wit LPS. In the present study, MIA generated a range of behavioural changes in the adult male offspring, including increased exploratory activity and anxiety-like behaviours. The most intriguing finding was observed in the prepulse inhibition (PPI) test, where the deficit in the sensorimotor gating was age-dependent and present only in part of the rats. We were able to distinguish the occurrence of two groups: responsive and non-responsive (without the deficit). Concurrently, based on the results of the biochemical studies, MIA disrupted mainly the CD200-CD200R system, while the changes of the CX3CL1-CX3CR1 axis were less evident in the frontal cortex of adult non-responsive offspring. MIA markedly affected the immune regulators of the CD200-CD200R pathway as we observed an increase in cortical IL-6 release in the responsive group and IL-4 in the non-responsive offspring. Importantly, the "second hit" generated disturbances at the behavioural and biochemical levels mostly in the non-responsive adult animals. Those offspring were characterized both by disturbed PPI and "priming" microglia. Altogether, the exposure to MIA altered the immunomodulatory mechanisms, including the CD200-CD200R axis, in the brain and sensitized animals to subsequent immunological challenges, leading to the manifestation of schizophrenia-like alterations.
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Ross M, Garland A, Harlander-Matauschek A, Kitchenham L, Mason G. Welfare-improving enrichments greatly reduce hens' startle responses, despite little change in judgment bias. Sci Rep 2019; 9:11881. [PMID: 31417122 PMCID: PMC6695442 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-48351-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2019] [Accepted: 07/22/2019] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Responses to ambiguous and aversive stimuli (e.g. via tests of judgment bias and measures of startle amplitude) can indicate mammals' affective states. We hypothesised that such findings generalize to birds, and that these two responses co-vary (since both involve stimulus evaluation). To validate startle reflexes (involuntary responses to sudden aversive stimuli) and responses in a judgment bias task as indicators of avian affective state, we differentially housed hens with or without preferred enrichments assumed to improve mood (in a crossover design). To control for personality, we first measured hens' baseline exploration levels. To infer judgment bias, control and enriched hens were trained to discriminate between white and dark grey cues (associated with reward and punishment, respectively), and then probed with intermediate shades of grey. For startle reflexes, forceplates assessed responses to a light flash. Judgment bias was only partially validated: Exploratory hens showed more 'optimism' when enriched, but Non-exploratory hens did not. Across all birds, however, startle amplitudes were dramatically reduced by enrichment (albeit more strongly in Exploratory subjects): the first evidence that avian startle is affectively modulated. Startle and judgment biases did not co-vary, suggesting different underlying mechanisms. Of the two measures, startle reflexes thus seem most sensitive to avian affective state.
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Affiliation(s)
- Misha Ross
- Department of Animal Biosciences, University of Guelph, 50 Stone Road, Guelph, Ontario, N1G2W1, Canada
| | - Anna Garland
- Department of Animal Biosciences, University of Guelph, 50 Stone Road, Guelph, Ontario, N1G2W1, Canada
| | | | - Lindsey Kitchenham
- Department of Animal Biosciences, University of Guelph, 50 Stone Road, Guelph, Ontario, N1G2W1, Canada
| | - Georgia Mason
- Department of Animal Biosciences, University of Guelph, 50 Stone Road, Guelph, Ontario, N1G2W1, Canada.
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On Wah DT, Kavaliers M, Bishnoi IR, Ossenkopp KP. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) induced sickness in early adolescence alters the behavioral effects of the short-chain fatty acid, propionic acid, in late adolescence and adulthood: Examining anxiety and startle reactivity. Behav Brain Res 2019; 360:312-322. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2018.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2018] [Revised: 11/29/2018] [Accepted: 12/01/2018] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Wah DTO, Ossenkopp KP, Bishnoi I, Kavaliers M. Predator odor exposure in early adolescence influences the effects of the bacterial product, propionic acid, on anxiety, sensorimotor gating, and acoustic startle response in male rats in later adolescence and adulthood. Physiol Behav 2019; 199:35-46. [DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2018.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2018] [Revised: 11/03/2018] [Accepted: 11/03/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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Systemic Treatment with the Enteric Bacterial Fermentation Product, Propionic Acid, Reduces Acoustic Startle Response Magnitude in Rats in a Dose-Dependent Fashion: Contribution to a Rodent Model of ASD. Neurotox Res 2018; 35:353-359. [DOI: 10.1007/s12640-018-9960-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2018] [Revised: 08/09/2018] [Accepted: 09/14/2018] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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Oliveros A, Wininger K, Sens J, Larsson MK, Liu XC, Choi S, Faka A, Schwieler L, Engberg G, Erhardt S, Choi DS. LPS-induced cortical kynurenic acid and neurogranin-NFAT signaling is associated with deficits in stimulus processing during Pavlovian conditioning. J Neuroimmunol 2017; 313:1-9. [PMID: 29153599 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2017.09.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2016] [Revised: 05/04/2017] [Accepted: 09/27/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The N-Methyl-d-Aspartate receptor (NMDAR) antagonist kynurenic acid (KYNA) and the post-synaptic calmodulin binding protein neurogranin (Nrgn) have been implicated in neurological and neuropsychiatric conditions including Alzheimer's disease and schizophrenia. This study indicates that systemic dual-lipopolysaccharide (LPS) injections increases KYNA in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), which is accompanied with increased phosphorylation of nuclear factor kappa chain of activated B cells (NFκB) and activation of the nuclear factor of activated T- cells (NFAT). Our results also indicate that dual-LPS increases Nrgn phosphorylation and concomitantly reduces phosphorylation of calmodulin kinase-II (CaMKII). We confirmed that systemic blockade of kynurenine-3 monooxygenase in conjunction with kynurenine administration results in significant increases in Nrgn phosphorylation and a significant reduction of CaMKII phosphorylation in the mPFC. Consequently, dual-LPS administration induced significant impairments in stimulus processing during Pavlovian conditioning. Taken together, our study indicates that elevations in KYNA in the mPFC can directly regulate NMDA-Nrgn-CaMKII signaling, suggesting that neuroinflammatory conditions affecting this pathway may be associated with cognitive dysfunction.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Oliveros
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Rochester, MN 55905, USA
| | - K Wininger
- Neurobiology of Disease Program, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Rochester, MN 55905, USA
| | - J Sens
- Neurobiology of Disease Program, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Rochester, MN 55905, USA
| | - M K Larsson
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - X C Liu
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - S Choi
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Rochester, MN 55905, USA
| | - A Faka
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - L Schwieler
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - G Engberg
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - S Erhardt
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - D S Choi
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Rochester, MN 55905, USA; Department of Psychiatry and Psychology, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Rochester, MN 55905, USA; Neurobiology of Disease Program, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Rochester, MN 55905, USA.
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Foley KA, MacFabe DF, Kavaliers M, Ossenkopp KP. Sexually dimorphic effects of prenatal exposure to lipopolysaccharide, and prenatal and postnatal exposure to propionic acid, on acoustic startle response and prepulse inhibition in adolescent rats: relevance to autism spectrum disorders. Behav Brain Res 2014; 278:244-56. [PMID: 25300465 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2014.09.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2014] [Revised: 09/16/2014] [Accepted: 09/20/2014] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Potential environmental risk factors for autism spectrum disorders (ASD) include viral/bacterial infection and an altered microbiome composition. The present study investigated whether administration of immune and gastrointestinal factors during gestation and early life altered startle response and prepulse inhibition in adolescent offspring using lipopolysaccharide (LPS), a bacterial mimetic, and propionic acid (PPA), a short chain fatty acid and metabolic product of antibiotic resistant enteric bacteria. Pregnant Long-Evans rats were injected once a day with PPA (500 mg/kg SC) on G12-16, LPS (50 μg/kg SC) on G15 and G16, or vehicle control on G12-16 or G15-16. Male and female offspring were injected with PPA (500 mg/kg SC) or vehicle twice a day, every second day from postnatal days 10-18. Acoustic startle and prepulse inhibition was measured on postnatal days 45, 47, 49, and 51. Prenatal and postnatal treatments altered startle behavior in a sex-specific manner. Prenatal LPS treatment produced hyper-sensitivity to acoustic startle in males, but not females and did not alter prepulse inhibition. Subtle alterations in startle responses that disappeared with repeated trials occurred with prenatal PPA and postnatal PPA treatment in both male and female offspring. Prenatal PPA treatment decreased prepulse inhibition in females, but not males. Lastly, females receiving a double hit of PPA, prenatal and postnatal, showed sensitization to acoustic startle, providing evidence for the double hit hypothesis. The current study supports the hypotheses that immune activation and metabolic products of enteric bacteria may alter development and behavior in ways that resemble sensory abnormalities observed in ASD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelly A Foley
- Graduate Program in Neuroscience, Department of Psychology, University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada; The Kilee Patchell-Evans Autism Research Group, Department of Psychology, University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada
| | - Derrick F MacFabe
- The Kilee Patchell-Evans Autism Research Group, Department of Psychology and Psychiatry, Division of Developmental Disabilities, University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada
| | - Martin Kavaliers
- Graduate Program in Neuroscience, Department of Psychology, University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada; The Kilee Patchell-Evans Autism Research Group, Department of Psychology, University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada
| | - Klaus-Peter Ossenkopp
- Graduate Program in Neuroscience, Department of Psychology, University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada; The Kilee Patchell-Evans Autism Research Group, Department of Psychology, University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada.
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Custódio CS, Mello BSF, Cordeiro RC, de Araújo FYR, Chaves JH, Vasconcelos SMM, Júnior HVN, de Sousa FCF, Vale ML, Carvalho AF, Macêdo DS. Time course of the effects of lipopolysaccharide on prepulse inhibition and brain nitrite content in mice. Eur J Pharmacol 2013; 713:31-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2013.04.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2012] [Revised: 04/20/2013] [Accepted: 04/26/2013] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
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Xu M, Sulkowski ZL, Parekh P, Khan A, Chen T, Midha S, Iwasaki T, Shimokawa N, Koibuchi N, Zavacki AM, Sajdel-Sulkowska EM. Effects of Perinatal Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) Exposure on the Developing Rat Brain; Modeling the Effect of Maternal Infection on the Developing Human CNS. THE CEREBELLUM 2013; 12:572-86. [DOI: 10.1007/s12311-013-0465-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
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Impairment of lithium chloride-induced conditioned gaping responses (anticipatory nausea) following immune system stimulation with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) occurs in both LPS tolerant and LPS non-tolerant rats. Brain Behav Immun 2013; 27:123-32. [PMID: 23064080 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2012.10.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2012] [Revised: 09/17/2012] [Accepted: 10/04/2012] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Anticipatory nausea is a classically conditioned response to a context that has been previously paired with toxin-induced nausea and/or vomiting. When injected with a nausea-inducing drug, such as lithium chloride (LiCl), rats will show a distinctive conditioned gaping response that has been suggested to be an index of nausea. Previous studies have found that immune system activation with an endotoxin, such as lipopolysaccharide (LPS), attenuates LiCl-induced conditioned gaping in rats. The present study examined the acquisition of LiCl-induced conditioned gaping in rats that were either LPS tolerant or LPS non-tolerant, as little is known about the effects of endotoxin tolerance on learning and memory. Male Long-Evan rats were given four systemic injections of LPS (200 μg/kg) or isotonic saline (NaCl) to induce LPS tolerance, indexed with 24 h changes in body weight following treatment. The animals were then given 4 acquisition trials in a LiCl-induced conditioned gaping paradigm. On conditioning days animals were treated with LPS (200 μg/kg) or saline followed 90 min later by injection of LiCl (127 mg/kg) or saline and then placed in a distinctive context for 30 min and their behavior video-recorded. On a drug free test day all animals were again placed in the distinctive context for 10 min and behavior was video-recorded. Gaping responses were scored for all acquisition days and the test day. Spleen and body weights were also obtained for all rats at the end of the experiment. Gaping responses were attenuated in rats treated with LPS in both the LPS tolerant and LPS non-tolerant groups. There were significant negative correlations between spleen weight as well as spleen/body weight ratios, and levels of conditioned gaping responses in LiCl treated rats, but not control rats. These results show that LPS interferes with learning/memory in the anticipatory nausea paradigm in rats that are both LPS tolerant and LPS non-tolerant.
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Bassi GS, Kanashiro A, Santin FM, de Souza GEP, Nobre MJ, Coimbra NC. Lipopolysaccharide-induced sickness behaviour evaluated in different models of anxiety and innate fear in rats. Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol 2011; 110:359-69. [PMID: 22059515 DOI: 10.1111/j.1742-7843.2011.00824.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
The fact that there is a complex and bidirectional communication between the immune and nervous systems has been well demonstrated. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS), a component of gram-negative bacteria, is widely used to systematically stimulate the immune system and generate profound physiological and behavioural changes, also known as 'sickness behaviour' (e.g. anhedonia, lethargy, loss of appetite, anxiety, sleepiness). Different ethological tools have been used to analyse the behavioural modifications induced by LPS; however, many researchers analysed only individual tests, a single LPS dose or a unique ethological parameter, thus leading to disagreements regarding the data. In the present study, we investigated the effects of different doses of LPS (10, 50, 200 and 500 μg/kg, i.p.) in young male Wistar rats (weighing 180-200 g; 8-9 weeks old) on the ethological and spatiotemporal parameters of the elevated plus maze, light-dark box, elevated T maze, open-field tests and emission of ultrasound vocalizations. There was a dose-dependent increase in anxiety-like behaviours caused by LPS, forming an inverted U curve peaked at LPS 200 μg/kg dose. However, these anxiety-like behaviours were detected only by complementary ethological analysis (stretching, grooming, immobility responses and alarm calls), and these reactions seem to be a very sensitive tool in assessing the first signs of sickness behaviour. In summary, the present work clearly showed that there are resting and alertness reactions induced by opposite neuroimmune mechanisms (neuroimmune bias) that could lead to anxiety behaviours, suggesting that misunderstanding data could occur when only few ethological variables or single doses of LPS are analysed. Finally, it is hypothesized that this bias is an evolutionary tool that increases animals' security while the body recovers from a systemic infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriel S Bassi
- Institute for Neuroscience and Behaviour, Campus Universitarius of Ribeirão Preto of the University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
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Lockey AJ, Kavaliers M, Ossenkopp KP. Lipopolysaccharide reduces tactile startle response magnitude but not prepulse inhibition in rats: A dose–response examination. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2009; 93:47-53. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2009.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2008] [Revised: 03/29/2009] [Accepted: 04/03/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) blocks the acquisition of LiCl-induced gaping in a rodent model of anticipatory nausea. Neurosci Lett 2009; 450:301-5. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2008.11.052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2008] [Revised: 11/13/2008] [Accepted: 11/24/2008] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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