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Wolf CJH, Spoelder M, Beurmanjer H, Bulthuis R, Schellekens AFA, Homberg JR. Individual differences in GHB consumption in a new voluntary GHB self-administration model in outbred rats. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2024; 241:613-625. [PMID: 38334790 PMCID: PMC10884067 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-024-06537-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2023] [Accepted: 01/17/2024] [Indexed: 02/10/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE The use of the recreational drug gamma-hydroxybutyric acid (GHB) has increased over the past decade, concomitantly leading to a higher incidence of GHB use disorder. Evidence-based treatment interventions are hardly available and cognitive effects of long-term GHB use remain elusive. In order to study the development of GUD and the causal effects of chronic GHB consumption, a GHB self-administration model is required. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH Long Evans rats had access to GHB in their home cage according to a two-bottle choice procedure for 3 months. Intoxication and withdrawal symptoms were assessed using an automated sensor-based setup for longitudinal behavioral monitoring. Rats were trained in an operant environment according to a fixed ratio (FR) 1, 2, and 4 schedule of reinforcement. Addiction-like behaviors were assessed through progressive ratio-, non-reinforced-, and quinine-adulterated operant tests. In addition, the novel object recognition test and elevated plus maze test were performed before and after GHB self-administration to assess memory performance and anxiety-like behavior, respectively. KEY RESULTS All rats consumed pharmacologically relevant levels of GHB in their home cage, and their intake remained stable over a period of 3 months. No clear withdrawal symptoms were observed following abstinence. Responding under operant conditions was characterized by strong inter-individual differences, where only a subset of rats showed high motivation for GHB, habitual GHB-seeking, and/or continued responding for GHB despite an aversive taste. Male rats showed a reduction in long-term memory performance 3 months after home-cage GHB self-administration. Anxiety-like behavior was not affected by GHB self-administration. CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS The GHB self-administration model was able to reflect individual susceptibility for addiction-like behavior. The reduction in long-term memory performance upon GHB self-administration calls for further research into the cognitive effects of chronic GHB use in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Casper J H Wolf
- Donders Institute for Brain, Department of Psychiatry, Radboudumc, Cognition, and Behaviour, Reinier Postlaan 4, 6525 GC, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
- Donders Institute for Brain Cognition and Behaviour, Department of Cognitive Neuroscience, Radboudumc, 6525 EN, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
- Nijmegen Institute for Scientist-Practitioners in Addiction (NISPA), 6525 HR, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
| | - Marcia Spoelder
- Department of Primary and Community Care, Radboud University Medical Center, 6500 HB, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Harmen Beurmanjer
- Nijmegen Institute for Scientist-Practitioners in Addiction (NISPA), 6525 HR, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
- Behavioural Science Institute, Radboud University, 6525 GD, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
- Novadic-Kentron Addiction Care, 5261 LX, Vught, The Netherlands
| | | | - Arnt F A Schellekens
- Donders Institute for Brain, Department of Psychiatry, Radboudumc, Cognition, and Behaviour, Reinier Postlaan 4, 6525 GC, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
- Nijmegen Institute for Scientist-Practitioners in Addiction (NISPA), 6525 HR, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Judith R Homberg
- Donders Institute for Brain Cognition and Behaviour, Department of Cognitive Neuroscience, Radboudumc, 6525 EN, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
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Wolf CJH, Venselaar H, Spoelder M, Beurmanjer H, Schellekens AFA, Homberg JR. An Overview of the Putative Structural and Functional Properties of the GHBh1 Receptor through a Bioinformatics Approach. Life (Basel) 2023; 13:life13040926. [PMID: 37109455 PMCID: PMC10142108 DOI: 10.3390/life13040926] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2023] [Revised: 03/24/2023] [Accepted: 03/30/2023] [Indexed: 04/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The neurotransmitter γ-hydroxybutyric acid (GHB) is suggested to be involved in neuronal energy homeostasis processes, but the substance is also used as a recreational drug and as a prescription medication for narcolepsy. GHB has several high-affinity targets in the brain, commonly generalized as the GHB receptor. However, little is known about the structural and functional properties of GHB receptor subtypes. This opinion article discusses the literature on the putative structural and functional properties of the GHBh1 receptor subtype. GHBh1 contains 11 transmembrane helices and at least one intracellular intrinsically disordered region (IDR). Additionally, GHBh1 shows a 100% overlap in amino acid sequence with the Riboflavin (vitamin B2) transporter, which opens the possibility of a possible dual-function (transceptor) structure. Riboflavin and GHB also share specific neuroprotective properties. Further research into the GHBh1 receptor subtype may pave the way for future therapeutic possibilities for GHB.
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Affiliation(s)
- Casper J. H. Wolf
- Department of Psychiatry, Radboudumc, 6525 GC Nijmegen, The Netherlands
- Department of Cognitive Neuroscience, Donders Institute for Brain Cognition and Behaviour, Radboudumc, 6525 EN Nijmegen, The Netherlands
- Nijmegen Institute for Scientist-Practitioners in Addiction (NISPA), 6525 HR Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Hanka Venselaar
- Center for Molecular and Biomolecular Informatics, Radboudumc, 6525 GA Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Marcia Spoelder
- Department of Primary and Community Care, Radboudumc, 6525 GC Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Harmen Beurmanjer
- Nijmegen Institute for Scientist-Practitioners in Addiction (NISPA), 6525 HR Nijmegen, The Netherlands
- Behavioural Science Institute, Radboud University, 6525 GD Nijmegen, The Netherlands
- Novadic-Kentron Addiction Care, 5261 LX Vught, The Netherlands
| | - Arnt F. A. Schellekens
- Department of Psychiatry, Radboudumc, 6525 GC Nijmegen, The Netherlands
- Nijmegen Institute for Scientist-Practitioners in Addiction (NISPA), 6525 HR Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Judith R. Homberg
- Department of Cognitive Neuroscience, Donders Institute for Brain Cognition and Behaviour, Radboudumc, 6525 EN Nijmegen, The Netherlands
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Wang P, Nan S, Zhang Y, Fan J. Effects of GABA B receptor positive allosteric modulator BHF177 and IRS-1 on apoptosis of hippocampal neurons in rats with refractory epilepsy via the PI3K/Akt pathway. Cell Biol Int 2022; 46:1775-1786. [PMID: 35989486 DOI: 10.1002/cbin.11839] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2021] [Revised: 11/12/2021] [Accepted: 05/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
The present study was conducted to determine the effects of the γ-aminobutyric acid B (GABAB ) receptor positive allosteric modulator BHF177 on refractory epilepsy (RE). An RE rat model was initially established via treatment with lithium-pilocarpine. The RE rats were then treated with BHF177 or the GABAB receptor antagonist CGP46381, followed by recording of their seizure rate and assessment of their spatial learning in the Morris water maze test. Treatment of BHF177 reduced the seizure intensity, whereas this effect was revered upoj treatment with CGP46381. Immunohistochemistry revealed that BHF177 treatment diminished P-glycoprotein (P-gp) expression in the hippocampal tissues of RE rats. Next, we found that BHF177 activated GABAB receptor, resulting in upregulated expression of insulin receptor substrate 1 (IRS-1) and PI3K, as well as antiapoptotic factors (Bcl-2 and mTOR), along with suppression of the apoptosis factors Bax and cleaved caspase-3 in the hippocampal tissues. Further, activation of GABAB receptors by BHF177 alleviated the inflammatory response in hippocampal tissues of RE rats, as evidenced by reduced VCAM-1, ICAM-1, and tumor necrosis factor-α levels. Next, we treated primary cultured rat hippocampal neurons with BHF177 and the IRS-1 selective inhibitor NT157. BHF177 inhibited hippocampal apoptosis in rat hippocampal neurons by regulating the IRS-1/PI3K/Akt axis through crosstalk between GABAB and insulin-like growth factor-1 receptors. Collectively, our findings indicate that the BHF177 inhibited neuron apoptosis, thus protecting against RE through the IRS-1/PI3K/Akt axis, which may present a new therapeutic channel for RE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peng Wang
- Department of Neurology, The Second Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, China
| | - Shanji Nan
- Department of Neurology, The Second Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, China
| | - Yizhi Zhang
- Department of Neurology, The Second Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, China
| | - Jia Fan
- Department of Neurology, The Second Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, China
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Chen C, Bu L, Liu H, Rang Y, Huang H, Xiao X, Ou G, Liu C. Learning and memory impairment induced by 1,4-butanediol is regulated by ERK1/2-CREB-BDNF signaling pathways in PC12 cells. Metab Brain Dis 2022; 37:1451-1463. [PMID: 35348994 DOI: 10.1007/s11011-022-00963-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2021] [Accepted: 03/14/2022] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
1,4-butanediol (1,4-BD) is a known γ-hydroxybutyric acid (GHB) precursor which affects the nervous system after ingestion, leading to uncontrolled behavioral consequences. In the present study, we investigated whether 1,4-BD induces oxidative stress and inflammation in PC12 cells and evaluated the toxic effects of 1,4-BD associates with learning and memory. CCK-8 results revealed a dose-effect relationship between the cell viability of PC12 cells and 1,4-BD when the duration of action was 2 h or 4 h. Assay kits results showed that 1,4-BD decreased the levels of Glutathione (GSH), Glutathione peroxidase (GSH-px), Superoxide dismutase (SOD), Acetylcholine (Ach) and increased the levels of Malondialdehyde (MDA), Nitric oxide (NO) and Acetylcholinesterase (AchE). Elisa kits results indicated that 1,4-BD decreased the levels of synaptophysin I (SYN-1), Postsynaptic density protein-95 (PSD-95), Growth associated protein-43 (GAP-43) and increased the levels of Tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) and Interleukin- 6 (IL-6). RT-PCR results showed that the mRNA levels of PSD-95, SYN-1 and GAP-43 were significantly decreased. The expression of phosphorylation extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase 1/2 (p-ERK1/2), phosphorylation cAMP response element binding protein (p-CREB) and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) proteins were significantly decreased in PC12 cells by protein blotting. Overall, these results suggest that 1,4-BD may affect synaptic plasticity via the ERK1/2-CREB-BDNF pathway, leading to Ach release reduction and ultimately to learning and memory impairment. Furthermore, oxidative stress and inflammation induced by 1,4-BD may also result in learning and memory deficits. These findings will enrich the toxicity data of 1.4-BD associated with learning and memory impairment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Congying Chen
- College of Food Science, South China Agricultural University, Guang zhou, 510642, China
| | - Lingling Bu
- College of Food Science, South China Agricultural University, Guang zhou, 510642, China
| | - Huan Liu
- College of Food Science, South China Agricultural University, Guang zhou, 510642, China
| | - Yifeng Rang
- College of Food Science, South China Agricultural University, Guang zhou, 510642, China
| | - Huiying Huang
- College of Food Science, South China Agricultural University, Guang zhou, 510642, China
| | - Xueman Xiao
- College of Food Science, South China Agricultural University, Guang zhou, 510642, China
| | - Genghua Ou
- College of Food Science, South China Agricultural University, Guang zhou, 510642, China
| | - Chunhong Liu
- College of Food Science, South China Agricultural University, Guang zhou, 510642, China.
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Zeng T, Li S, Wu L, Feng Z, Fan X, Yuan J, Wang X, Meng J, Ma H, Zeng G, Kang C, Yang J. A Comparison Study of Impulsiveness, Cognitive Function, and P300 Components Between Gamma-Hydroxybutyrate and Heroin-Addicted Patients: Preliminary Findings. Front Hum Neurosci 2022; 16:835922. [PMID: 35529779 PMCID: PMC9067320 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2022.835922] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2021] [Accepted: 03/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose The aim of this study was to investigate and compare impulsiveness, negative emotion, cognitive function, and P300 components among gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB)-addicted patients, heroin-dependent patients, and methadone maintenance treatment (MMT) subjects. Methods A total of 48 men including 17 GHB addicts, 16 heroin addicts, 15 MMT subjects, and 15 male mentally healthy controls (HC) were recruited. All subjects were evaluated for symptoms of depression, anxiety, impulsiveness, and cognitive function through the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9), the Generalized Anxiety Disorder 7-item (GAD-7), the Barratt Impulsiveness Scale version II (BIS-II), the Beijing version of the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (BJ-MoCA), the behavioral test (response time), and event-related potential P300 detection. Results (1) The mean scores of BIS-II in the GHB addiction group, heroin dependence group, and MMT group were significantly higher than those of the HC group (F = 30.339, P = 0.000). (2) The total scores of BJ-MOCA in GHB addiction group was the worst among the four groups, followed by heroin addiction, MMT group and HC group (F = 27.880, P = 0.000). (3) The response time in the GHB addiction group was the longest among the four groups, followed by the heroin addiction, MMT, and HC groups (F = 150.499, P = 0.000). (4) The amplitude and latency of P300 in GHB addiction subjects were significantly lower and longer than those of the MMT group and the HC group. (5) For the three types of addiction, the P300 amplitudes at Fz, Cz, Pz, T5, and T6 were negatively correlated with the scores of GAD-7, PHQ-9, and BIS-II; the P300 latencies were positively correlated with the response time and negatively correlated with the scores of the BJ-MoCA. Conclusion People with an addiction were likely to have increased impulsiveness. The cognitive function of the GHB and heroin-addicted subjects, including the heroin detoxification and the MMT groups, was severely impaired, especially for the GHB-addicted patients. The impairment manifested as abnormalities of BJ-MoCA, response time, and P300 components.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tingting Zeng
- Department of Psychiatry, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Kunming, China
| | - Shida Li
- The Guangzhou Baiyun Psychological Hospital, Guangzhou, China
| | - Li Wu
- Department of Substance Use Disorders, The Psychiatry Hospital of Yunnan, Kunming, China
| | - Zuxing Feng
- Department of Psychiatry, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Kunming, China
| | - Xinxin Fan
- Department of Psychiatry, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Kunming, China
| | - Jing Yuan
- Department of Psychiatry, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Kunming, China
| | - Xin Wang
- Department of Psychiatry, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Kunming, China
| | - Junyu Meng
- Department of Psychiatry, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Kunming, China
| | - Huan Ma
- Department of Psychiatry, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Kunming, China
| | - Guanyong Zeng
- The Guangzhou Baiyun Psychological Hospital, Guangzhou, China
- *Correspondence: Guanyong Zeng
| | - Chuanyuan Kang
- Department of Psychosomatic Medicine, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai East Hospital, Shanghai, China
- Chuanyuan Kang
| | - Jianzhong Yang
- Department of Psychiatry, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Kunming, China
- Jianzhong Yang
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6
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van Amsterdam J, Brunt TM, Pereira FR, Crunelle CL, van den Brink W. Cognitive Impairment Following Clinical or Recreational Use of Gammahydroxybutyric Acid (GHB): A Systematic Review. Curr Neuropharmacol 2022; 20:809-819. [PMID: 34151766 PMCID: PMC9878963 DOI: 10.2174/1570159x19666210610094352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2021] [Revised: 03/24/2021] [Accepted: 05/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND GHB (gamma-hydroxybutyric acid; sodium oxybate) is a general anaesthetic that is clinically used for the treatment of narcolepsy, cataplexy, alcohol withdrawal and alcohol relapse prevention. In addition, GHB is recreationally used. Most clinical and recreational users regard GHB as an innocent drug devoid of adverse effects, despite its high dependence potential and possible neurotoxic effects. At high doses, GHB may lead to a comatose state. This paper systematically reviews possible cognitive impairments due to clinical and recreational GHB use. METHODS PubMed and PsychINFO were searched for literature data about the acute and residual cognitive deficits following GHB use. This review is conducted using the PRISMA protocol. RESULTS A total of 43 reports covering human and animal data on GHB-induced cognitive impairments were eligible and reviewed. This systematic review found no indication for cognitive impairments after clinical GHB use. However, it supports the view that moderate GHB use may result in acute short-term cognitive impairments, whereas regular high-dose GHB use and/or multiple GHB-induced comas are probably neurotoxic resulting in long-term residual cognitive impairments. CONCLUSION These results emphasize the need for awareness among clinicians and recreational users to minimize negative health consequences of recreational GHB use, particularly when high doses are used and GHB-induced comas occur.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan van Amsterdam
- Department of Psychiatry, Amsterdam University Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, P.O. Box 22660, 1100 DD Amsterdam, The Netherlands;,Address correspondence to this author at the Department of Psychiatry, Amsterdam University Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, P.O. Box 22660, 1100 DD Amsterdam, The Netherlands; E-mails: ;
| | - Tibor M. Brunt
- Department of Psychiatry, Amsterdam University Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, P.O. Box 22660, 1100 DD Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Filipa R. Pereira
- Department of Psychiatry, Amsterdam University Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, P.O. Box 22660, 1100 DD Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Cleo L. Crunelle
- Department of Psychiatry, Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), Universitair Ziekenhuis Brussel (UZ Brussel), Laarbeeklaan 101, 1090 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Wim van den Brink
- Department of Psychiatry, Amsterdam University Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, P.O. Box 22660, 1100 DD Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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Raposo Pereira F, McMaster MTB, Schellekens A, Polderman N, de Vries YDAT, van den Brink W, van Wingen GA. Effects of Recreational GHB Use and Multiple GHB-Induced Comas on Brain Structure and Impulsivity. Front Psychiatry 2020; 11:166. [PMID: 32300311 PMCID: PMC7142256 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2019] [Accepted: 02/21/2020] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS The regular use of gamma-hydroxybutyrate acid (GHB) can induce GHB-induced comas. Other substance use disorders are associated with alterations in brain structure and impulsivity. Here we aim to investigate if these are also modulated by either regular GHB use or GHB-induced comas. METHODS In a sample of human males, structural and diffusion neuroimaging data were collected for 27 GHB users with ≥4 GHB-induced comas (GHB-Coma), 27 GHB users without GHB-induced comas (GHB-NoComa), and 27 polydrug users who never used GHB (No-GHB). The structural brain parameters were analyzed macroscopically using voxel-based morphometry and microscopically using tract-based spatial statistics (TBSS) and tractography. Impulsivity was assessed with the Barrat Impulsivity Scale. RESULTS In comparison to the other two groups, the GHB-Coma group showed a higher fractional anisotropy in the body of the corpus callosum and a lower mean diffusivity in the forceps minor (i.e., whole-brain TBSS analysis). No macrostructural differences nor microstructural differences, as assessed with tractography, were observed. The GHB-Coma group also reported higher impulsivity, which was more strongly associated with white matter volume and fractional anisotropy in tracts involved in impulse control (post-hoc analysis). GHB use per se was associated neither with differences in brain structure nor with impulsivity. CONCLUSIONS The results suggest that multiple GHB-induced comas, but not GHB use per se, are associated with microstructural alterations in white matter and with higher self-reported impulsivity, which in turn was associated with white matter tracts involved in impulse control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Filipa Raposo Pereira
- Department of Psychiatry, Amsterdam Neuroscience, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam UMC, Amsterdam, Netherlands
- Amsterdam Brain and Cognition, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Minni T. B. McMaster
- Department of Psychiatry, Amsterdam Neuroscience, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam UMC, Amsterdam, Netherlands
- Amsterdam Brain and Cognition, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Arnt Schellekens
- Department of Psychiatry, Radboud University Medical Centre (Radboudumc), Nijmegen, Netherlands
- Nijmegen Institute for Scientist Practitioners in Addiction (NISPA), Nijmegen, Netherlands
| | - Nikki Polderman
- Department of Psychiatry, Amsterdam Neuroscience, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam UMC, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Yvon D. A. T. de Vries
- Department of Psychiatry, Amsterdam Neuroscience, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam UMC, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Wim van den Brink
- Department of Psychiatry, Amsterdam Neuroscience, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam UMC, Amsterdam, Netherlands
- Amsterdam Brain and Cognition, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Guido A. van Wingen
- Department of Psychiatry, Amsterdam Neuroscience, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam UMC, Amsterdam, Netherlands
- Amsterdam Brain and Cognition, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
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Gisquet-Verrier P, Le Dorze C. Post Traumatic Stress Disorder and Substance Use Disorder as Two Pathologies Affecting Memory Reactivation: Implications for New Therapeutic Approaches. Front Behav Neurosci 2019; 13:26. [PMID: 30814940 PMCID: PMC6381044 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2019.00026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2018] [Accepted: 01/30/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
In the present review, we provide evidence indicating that although post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and substance use disorder (SUD) are two distinct pathologies with very different impacts on people affected by these chronic illnesses, they share numerous common characteristics, present high rates of co-morbidity, and may result from common physiological dysfunctions. We propose that these pathologies result from hyper reactivity to reminders, and thus should be considered as two disorders of memory, treated as such. We review the different possibilities to intervene on pathological memories such as extinction therapy and reconsolidation blockade. We also introduce new therapeutic avenues directly indicate by our recent proposal to replace the consolidation/reconsolidation hypothesis by the integration concept. State dependency and emotional remodeling are two innovative treatments that have already provided encouraging results. In summary, this review shows that the discovery of reactivation-dependent memory malleability has open new therapeutic avenues based on the reprocessing of pathological memories, which constitute promising approaches to treat PTSD and SUD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pascale Gisquet-Verrier
- Institut des Neurosciences Paris-Saclay (Neuro-PSI), Université Paris-Sud, CNRS UMR 9197, Université Paris-Saclay, Orsay, France
| | - Claire Le Dorze
- Institut des Neurosciences Paris-Saclay (Neuro-PSI), Université Paris-Sud, CNRS UMR 9197, Université Paris-Saclay, Orsay, France
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Raposo Pereira F, McMaster MT, de Vries YD, Polderman N, van den Brink W, van Wingen GA. Influence of Gamma-Hydroxybutyric Acid-Use and Gamma-Hydroxybutyric Acid-Induced Coma on Affect and the Affective Network. Eur Addict Res 2019; 25:173-181. [PMID: 30999293 PMCID: PMC7050670 DOI: 10.1159/000497381] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2018] [Accepted: 01/30/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Gamma-hydroxybutyric acid (GHB) is a drug of abuse associated with increased emergency room attendances, due to GHB-induced comas. Withdrawal from GHB often increases social anxiety and is linked to alterations in emotion processing. However, little is known about the effects of GHB-use and GHB-induced comas on affect regulation in humans. OBJECTIVES We aimed to assess the effect of GHB-use and GHB-induced comas on the affective network. METHOD We recruited 27 GHB users with ≥4 GHB-induced comas (GHB-Coma), 27 GHB users without a GHB-induced coma (GHB-NoComa), and 27 polydrug users who never used GHB (No-GHB). Participants completed self-report questionnaires assessing negative affect (depression, anxiety and stress) and performed an emotional face matching task during functional magnetic resonance imaging to probe activity of the amygdala and the hippocampus. RESULTS The GHB-Coma group reported higher levels of depression, anxiety, and stress; showed decreased activity of the hippocampus; and increased functional connectivity of the left hippocampus with the left fusiform gyrus and a cluster on the left temporal-parietal-occipital junction, when compared with the 2 other groups. The GHB-NoComa group showed decreased functional connectivity of the left hippocampus with the amygdala in comparison with the No-GHB group. CONCLUSIONS GHB-use but in particular GHB-induced comas, are associated with altered emotion identification and hippocampal functioning. Awareness campaigns are required to raise consciousness about the adverse effects of GHB-induced comas on affect regulation, despite the absence of subjective side effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Filipa Raposo Pereira
- Department of Psychiatry, Amsterdam Neuroscience, Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands,Amsterdam Brain and Cognition, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands,*Filipa Raposo Pereira, Department of Psychiatry, Amsterdam Neuroscience, Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam, AMC (PA.3-220), Meibergdreef 9, 1105 AZ Amsterdam (The Netherlands), E-Mail
| | - Minni T.B. McMaster
- Department of Psychiatry, Amsterdam Neuroscience, Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands,Amsterdam Brain and Cognition, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Yvon D.A.T. de Vries
- Department of Psychiatry, Amsterdam Neuroscience, Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Nikki Polderman
- Department of Psychiatry, Amsterdam Neuroscience, Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Wim van den Brink
- Department of Psychiatry, Amsterdam Neuroscience, Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands,Amsterdam Brain and Cognition, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Guido A. van Wingen
- Department of Psychiatry, Amsterdam Neuroscience, Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands,Amsterdam Brain and Cognition, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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10
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Raposo Pereira F, McMaster MTB, Polderman N, de Vries YDAT, van den Brink W, van Wingen GA. Effect of GHB-use and GHB-induced comas on dorsolateral prefrontal cortex functioning in humans. Neuroimage Clin 2018; 20:923-930. [PMID: 30308378 PMCID: PMC6178194 DOI: 10.1016/j.nicl.2018.09.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2018] [Revised: 08/15/2018] [Accepted: 09/25/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Gamma-hydroxybutyric acid (GHB) is a recreational drug associated with increasing numbers of GHB-dependent patients and emergency attendances often related to GHB-induced comas. Working memory (WM) deficits have been reported in association with GHB use, and animal studies have shown that GHB induces oxidative stress in vulnerable WM-related brain areas such as the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC). However, the effects of chronic GHB use and multiple GHB-induced comas on WM-related brain function in humans remains unknown. METHODS We recruited 27 GHB users with ≥4 GHB-induced comas (GHB-Coma), 27 GHB users who never experienced GHB-induced coma (GHB-NoComa), and 27 polydrug users who never used GHB (No-GHB). Participants performed an n-back WM task during functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to probe DLPFC functioning. RESULTS The GHB-Coma group had lower premorbid IQ (p = .006) than the GHB-NoComa group despite comparable age and education level. There were also group differences in the use of other drugs than GHB. Therefore, all group comparisons were adjusted for IQ and drug use other than GHB. Compared with the GHB-NoComa and the No-GHB groups, the GHB-Coma group showed increased activity in the right DLPFC (pSVC = 0.028) and increased functional connectivity of the right DLPFC with a cluster comprising the left anterior cingulate and medial frontal gyrus (pFWE = 0.003). No significant fMRI differences were observed between the GHB-NoComa and No-GHB groups. Due to technical problems, no behavioural data were collected. DISCUSSION These results suggest that multiple GHB-induced comas, but not GHB-use per se, are associated with alterations in WM-related brain function. Public awareness campaigns are required to minimize the potential adverse effects induced by GHB recreational use, and especially GHB-induced comas, even if no immediate side effects are experienced.
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Affiliation(s)
- Filipa Raposo Pereira
- Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam, Department of Psychiatry, Amsterdam Neuroscience, Amsterdam, the Netherlands; Amsterdam Brain and Cognition, University of Amsterdam, the Netherlands.
| | - Minni T B McMaster
- Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam, Department of Psychiatry, Amsterdam Neuroscience, Amsterdam, the Netherlands; Amsterdam Brain and Cognition, University of Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Nikki Polderman
- Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam, Department of Psychiatry, Amsterdam Neuroscience, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Yvon D A T de Vries
- Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam, Department of Psychiatry, Amsterdam Neuroscience, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Wim van den Brink
- Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam, Department of Psychiatry, Amsterdam Neuroscience, Amsterdam, the Netherlands; Amsterdam Brain and Cognition, University of Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Guido A van Wingen
- Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam, Department of Psychiatry, Amsterdam Neuroscience, Amsterdam, the Netherlands; Amsterdam Brain and Cognition, University of Amsterdam, the Netherlands
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Lisdahl KM, Sher KJ, Conway KP, Gonzalez R, Feldstein Ewing SW, Nixon SJ, Tapert S, Bartsch H, Goldstein RZ, Heitzeg M. Adolescent brain cognitive development (ABCD) study: Overview of substance use assessment methods. Dev Cogn Neurosci 2018; 32:80-96. [PMID: 29559216 PMCID: PMC6375310 DOI: 10.1016/j.dcn.2018.02.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 168] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2017] [Revised: 02/01/2018] [Accepted: 02/16/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
One of the objectives of the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study (https://abcdstudy.org/) is to establish a national longitudinal cohort of 9 and 10 year olds that will be followed for 10 years in order to prospectively study the risk and protective factors influencing substance use and its consequences, examine the impact of substance use on neurocognitive, health and psychosocial outcomes, and to understand the relationship between substance use and psychopathology. This article provides an overview of the ABCD Study Substance Use Workgroup, provides the goals for the workgroup, rationale for the substance use battery, and includes details on the substance use module methods and measurement tools used during baseline, 6-month and 1-year follow-up assessment time-points. Prospective, longitudinal assessment of these substance use domains over a period of ten years in a nationwide sample of youth presents an unprecedented opportunity to further understand the timing and interactive relationships between substance use and neurocognitive, health, and psychopathology outcomes in youth living in the United States.
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Affiliation(s)
- Krista M Lisdahl
- Department of Psychology, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, 2441 East Hartford Ave, 224 Garland Hall, Milwaukee, WI, 53211, United States.
| | - Kenneth J Sher
- Curators' Professor of Psychological Sciences, University of Missouri, 210 McAlester Hall, Columbia, MO 65211, United States
| | - Kevin P Conway
- Division of Epidemiology, Services and Prevention Research, National Institute on Drug Abuse,6001 Executive Boulevard, Bethesda, MD 20892, United States
| | - Raul Gonzalez
- Department of Psychology, Florida International University,11200 SW 8th Street AHC-4, 461, Miami, FL 33199, United States
| | - Sarah W Feldstein Ewing
- Department of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, Oregon Health & Science University, Mail code: DC7P, 3181 SW Sam Jackson Park Rd, Portland OR 97239, United States
| | - Sara Jo Nixon
- Department of Psychiatry, P.O. Box 100256, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, United States
| | - Susan Tapert
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA 92093-0603, United States
| | - Hauke Bartsch
- Center for Multimodal Imaging and Genetics, Department of Radiology, University of California, San Diego,9452 Medical Center Drive, La Jolla, CA, 92037, United States
| | - Rita Z Goldstein
- Department of Psychiatry (primary) and Department of Neuroscience, Friedman Brain Institute (secondary), Chief, Brain Imaging Center (BIC), Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, The Leon and Norma Hess Center for Science and Medicine, 1470 Madison Ave, New York, NY 10029, United States
| | - Mary Heitzeg
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Michigan,4250 Plymouth Road, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, United States
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Pujol CN, Paasche C, Laprevote V, Trojak B, Vidailhet P, Bacon E, Lalanne L. Cognitive effects of labeled addictolytic medications. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2018; 81:306-332. [PMID: 28919445 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2017.09.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2017] [Revised: 09/11/2017] [Accepted: 09/11/2017] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Alcohol, tobacco, and illegal drug usage is pervasive throughout the world, and abuse of these substances is a major contributor to the global disease burden. Many pharmacotherapies have been developed over the last 50years to target addictive disorders. While the efficacy of these pharmacotherapies is largely recognized, their cognitive impact is less known. However, all substance abuse disorders are known to promote cognitive disorders like executive dysfunction and memory impairment. These impairments are critical for the maintenance of addictive behaviors and impede cognitive behavioral therapies that are regularly administered in association with pharmacotherapies. It is also unknown if addictolytic medications have an impact on preexisting cognitive disorders, and if this impact is modulated by the indication of prescription, i.e. abstinence, reduction or substitution, or by the specific action of the medication. METHOD We reviewed the cognitive effects of labeled medications for tobacco addiction (varenicline, bupropion, nicotine patch and nicotine gums), alcohol addiction (naltrexone, nalmefene, baclofen, disulfiram, sodium oxybate, acamprosate), and opioid addiction (methadone, buprenorphine) in human studies. Studies were selected following MOOSE guidelines for systematic reviews of observational studies, using the keywords [Cognition] and [Cognitive disorders] and [treatment] for each medication. RESULTS 971 articles were screened and 77 studies met the inclusion criteria and were reported in this review (for alcohol abuse, n=21, for tobacco n=22, for opioid n=34. However, very few comparative clinical trials have explored the chronic effects of addictolytic medications on cognition in addictive behaviors, and there are no clinical trials on the cognitive impact of nalmefene in patients suffering from alcohol use disorders. DISCUSSION Although some medications seem to enhance cognition in patients suffering from cognitive disorders, others could promote cognitive impairments, and our work highlights a lack of literature on this subject. In conclusion, more comparative clinical trials are needed to better understand the cognitive impact of addictolytic medications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Camille Noélie Pujol
- Department of Neurosciences, Institute for Functional Genomics, INSERM U-661, CNRS UMR-5203, 34094 Montpellier, France
| | - Cecilia Paasche
- INSERM 1114, Department of Psychiatry and Addictology, University Hospital of Strasbourg, Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle de Strasbourg (FMTS), 67000 Strasbourg, France
| | - Vincent Laprevote
- Centre Psychothérapique de Nancy, Laxou, F-54520, France.; EA 7298, INGRES, Université de Lorraine, Vandoeuvre-lès-, Nancy F-54000, France; CHU Nancy, Maison des Addictions, Nancy, F-54000, France.
| | - Benoit Trojak
- Department of Psychiatry and Addictology, University Hospital of Dijon, France; EA 4452, LPPM, University of Burgundy, France.
| | - Pierre Vidailhet
- INSERM 1114, Department of Psychiatry and Addictology, University Hospital of Strasbourg, Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle de Strasbourg (FMTS), 67000 Strasbourg, France; Department of Psychiatry and Addictology, University Hospital of Strasbourg, Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle de Strasbourg (FMTS), 67000 Strasbourg, France..
| | - Elisabeth Bacon
- INSERM 1114, Department of Psychiatry and Addictology, University Hospital of Strasbourg, Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle de Strasbourg (FMTS), 67000 Strasbourg, France.
| | - Laurence Lalanne
- INSERM 1114, Department of Psychiatry and Addictology, University Hospital of Strasbourg, Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle de Strasbourg (FMTS), 67000 Strasbourg, France; Department of Psychiatry and Addictology, University Hospital of Strasbourg, Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle de Strasbourg (FMTS), 67000 Strasbourg, France..
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Effects of GABAB receptor activation on spatial cognitive function and hippocampal neurones in rat models of type 2 diabetes mellitus. Biosci Rep 2018; 38:BSR20171184. [PMID: 29176000 PMCID: PMC5773821 DOI: 10.1042/bsr20171184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2017] [Revised: 11/17/2017] [Accepted: 11/22/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The present study was conducted with the aim being to investigate the effect γ-aminobutyric acid type B (GABAB) receptor activation have on spatial cognitive function and hippocampal neurones found in the rat models of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). T2DM rat models were then established, randomized, and subsequently assigned into normal control (NC), T2DM, T2DM + chemical grade propylene (CGP), T2DM + baclofen, and T2DM + CGP + baclofen groups. T2DM rats’ weight and blood sugar concentrations were monitored. The DMS-2 Morris water maze testing system was performed in order to figure out the spatial cognitive function of these rats. Reverse-transcription quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) and Western blotting were also performed in order to detect GABAB mRNA and protein expressions. We used the Nissl staining method in order to detect the number of hippocampal neurones, TUNEL (terminal deoxyribonucleotidy transferase-mediated dUTP nick labeling) staining to detect cell apoptosis, and Western blotting method in order to measure the expressions of the apoptosis-related proteins (Bax, cytochrome c (Cyt-c), Caspase-3, and Bcl-2). In comparison with the T2DM group, the weight decreased, blood sugar concentration increased, and spatial cognitive function as well as hippocampal neurones were both impaired in the T2DM + CGP group, contrary to the rats in the T2DM + baclofen group who showed an opposite trend. The situation in the T2DM + CGP + baclofen group was better than that found in the T2DM + CGP group while proving to be more serious than that of the NC and T2DM + baclofen groups. Conclusively, activating the GABAB receptor improved spatial cognitive function and hippocampal neurones in the T2DM rats.
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The mRNA expression of insulin-like growth factor-1 (Igf1) is decreased in the rat frontal cortex following gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB) administration. Neurosci Lett 2017; 646:15-20. [PMID: 28249788 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2017.02.053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2016] [Revised: 02/13/2017] [Accepted: 02/21/2017] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
In recent years, growth hormone (GH), together with its secondary mediators insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) and insulin-like growth factor-2 (IGF-2), have been highlighted for their beneficial effects in the central nervous system (CNS), in particular as cognitive enhancers. Cognitive processes, such as learning and memory, are known to be impaired in individuals suffering from substance abuse. In the present study, we investigated the effect of gamma-hydroxybuturate (GHB), an illicit drug used for its sedating and euphoric properties, on genes associated with the somatotrophic axis in regions of the brain important for cognitive function. Sprague Dawley rats (n=36) were divided into three groups and administered either saline, GHB 50mg/kg or GHB 300mg/kg orally for seven days. The levels of Ghr, Igf1 and Igf2 gene transcripts were analyzed using qPCR in brain regions involved in cognition and dependence. The levels of IGF-1 in blood plasma were also determined using ELISA. The results demonstrated a significant down-regulation of Igf1 mRNA expression in the frontal cortex in high-dose treated rats. Moreover, a significant correlation between Igf1 and Ghr mRNA expression was found in the hippocampus, the frontal cortex, and the caudate putamen, indicating local regulation of the GH/IGF-1 axis. To summarize, the current study concludes that chronic GHB treatment influences gene expression of Ghr and Igf1 in brain regions involved in cognitive function.
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Comprehensive Application of Time-of-flight Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (TOF-SIMS) for Ionic Imaging and Bio-energetic Analysis of Club Drug-induced Cognitive Deficiency. Sci Rep 2015; 5:18420. [PMID: 26674573 PMCID: PMC4682059 DOI: 10.1038/srep18420] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2015] [Accepted: 11/17/2015] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Excessive exposure to club drug (GHB) would cause cognitive dysfunction in which impaired hippocampal Ca2+-mediated neuroplasticity may correlate with this deficiency. However, the potential changes of in vivo Ca2+ together with molecular machinery engaged in GHB-induced cognitive dysfunction has never been reported. This study aims to determine these changes in bio-energetic level through ionic imaging, spectrometric, biochemical, morphological, as well as behavioral approaches. Adolescent rats subjected to GHB were processed for TOF-SIMS, immunohistochemistry, biochemical assay, together with Morris water maze to detect the ionic, molecular, neurochemical, and behavioral changes of GHB-induced cognitive dysfunction, respectively. Extent of oxidative stress and bio-energetics were assessed by levels of lipid peroxidation, Na+/K+ ATPase, cytochrome oxidase, and [14C]-2-deoxyglucose activity. Results indicated that in GHB intoxicated rats, decreased Ca2+ imaging and reduced NMDAR1, nNOS, and p-CREB reactivities were detected in hippocampus. Depressed Ca2+-mediated signaling corresponded well with intense oxidative stress, diminished Na+/K+ ATPase, reduced COX, and decreased 2-DG activity, which all contributes to the development of cognitive deficiency. As impaired Ca2+-mediated signaling and oxidative stress significantly contribute to GHB-induced cognitive dysfunction, delivering agent(s) that improves hippocampal bio-energetics may thus serve as a promising strategy to counteract the club drug-induced cognitive dysfunction emerging in our society nowadays.
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Salminen A, Jouhten P, Sarajärvi T, Haapasalo A, Hiltunen M. Hypoxia and GABA shunt activation in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease. Neurochem Int 2015; 92:13-24. [PMID: 26617286 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuint.2015.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2015] [Revised: 11/16/2015] [Accepted: 11/18/2015] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
We have previously observed that the conversion of mild cognitive impairment to definitive Alzheimer's disease (AD) is associated with a significant increase in the serum level of 2,4-dihydroxybutyrate (2,4-DHBA). The metabolic generation of 2,4-DHBA is linked to the activation of the γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) shunt, an alternative energy production pathway activated during cellular stress, when the function of Krebs cycle is compromised. The GABA shunt can be triggered by local hypoperfusion and subsequent hypoxia in AD brains caused by cerebral amyloid angiopathy. Succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase (SSADH) is a key enzyme in the GABA shunt, converting succinic semialdehyde (SSA) into succinate, a Krebs cycle intermediate. A deficiency of SSADH activity stimulates the conversion of SSA into γ-hydroxybutyrate (GHB), an alternative route from the GABA shunt. GHB can exert not only acute neuroprotective activities but unfortunately also chronic detrimental effects which may lead to cognitive impairment. Subsequently, GHB can be metabolized to 2,4-DHBA and secreted from the brain. Thus, the activation of the GABA shunt and the generation of GHB and 2,4-DHBA can have an important role in the early phase of AD pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antero Salminen
- Institute of Clinical Medicine - Neurology, University of Eastern Finland, P.O. Box 1627, FIN-70211 Kuopio, Finland.
| | - Paula Jouhten
- VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland, FIN-00014 Helsinki, Finland; EMBL European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Meyerhofstrasse 1, 69117 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Timo Sarajärvi
- Institute of Clinical Medicine - Neurology, University of Eastern Finland, P.O. Box 1627, FIN-70211 Kuopio, Finland; Institute of Biomedicine, University of Eastern Finland, P.O. Box 1627, FIN-70211 Kuopio, Finland
| | - Annakaisa Haapasalo
- Institute of Clinical Medicine - Neurology, University of Eastern Finland, P.O. Box 1627, FIN-70211 Kuopio, Finland; Department of Neurobiology, A.I. Virtanen Institute for Molecular Sciences, Neulaniementie 2, P.O. Box 1627, FIN-70211 Kuopio, Finland; Department of Neurology, Kuopio University Hospital, P.O. Box 100, FI-70029 KYS, Finland
| | - Mikko Hiltunen
- Institute of Clinical Medicine - Neurology, University of Eastern Finland, P.O. Box 1627, FIN-70211 Kuopio, Finland; Department of Neurology, Kuopio University Hospital, P.O. Box 100, FI-70029 KYS, Finland; Institute of Biomedicine, University of Eastern Finland, P.O. Box 1627, FIN-70211 Kuopio, Finland
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Lu Y, Li C, Zhou M, Luo P, Huang P, Tan J, Lu Q, Xu X, He Z, Guo L. Clonidine ameliorates cognitive impairment induced by chronic cerebral hypoperfusion via up-regulation of the GABABR1 and GAD67 in hippocampal CA1 in rats. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2015; 132:96-102. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2015.01.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2014] [Revised: 01/21/2015] [Accepted: 01/26/2015] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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