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Osma-Garcia IC, Capitan-Sobrino D, Mouysset M, Aubert Y, Maloudi O, Turner M, Diaz-Muñoz MD. The splicing regulators TIA1 and TIAL1 are required for the expression of the DNA damage repair machinery during B cell lymphopoiesis. Cell Rep 2022; 41:111869. [PMID: 36543128 PMCID: PMC9794549 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2022.111869] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2021] [Revised: 10/01/2022] [Accepted: 11/29/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
B cell lymphopoiesis requires dynamic modulation of the B cell transcriptome for timely coordination of somatic mutagenesis and DNA repair in progenitor B (pro-B) cells. Here, we show that, in pro-B cells, the RNA-binding proteins T cell intracellular antigen 1 (TIA1) and TIA1-like protein (TIAL1) act redundantly to enable developmental progression. They are global splicing regulators that control the expression of hundreds of mRNAs, including those involved in DNA damage repair. Mechanistically, TIA1 and TIAL1 bind to 5' splice sites for exon definition, splicing, and expression of DNA damage sensors, such as Chek2 and Rif1. In their absence, pro-B cells show exacerbated DNA damage, altered P53 expression, and increased cell death. Our study uncovers the importance of tight regulation of RNA splicing by TIA1 and TIAL1 for the expression of integrative transcriptional programs that control DNA damage sensing and repair during B cell development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ines C. Osma-Garcia
- Toulouse Institute for Infectious and Inflammatory Diseases (INFINITy), Inserm UMR1291, CNRS UMR5051, University Paul Sabatier, CHU Purpan, Toulouse 31024, France
| | - Dunja Capitan-Sobrino
- Toulouse Institute for Infectious and Inflammatory Diseases (INFINITy), Inserm UMR1291, CNRS UMR5051, University Paul Sabatier, CHU Purpan, Toulouse 31024, France
| | - Mailys Mouysset
- Toulouse Institute for Infectious and Inflammatory Diseases (INFINITy), Inserm UMR1291, CNRS UMR5051, University Paul Sabatier, CHU Purpan, Toulouse 31024, France
| | - Yann Aubert
- Toulouse Institute for Infectious and Inflammatory Diseases (INFINITy), Inserm UMR1291, CNRS UMR5051, University Paul Sabatier, CHU Purpan, Toulouse 31024, France
| | - Orlane Maloudi
- Toulouse Institute for Infectious and Inflammatory Diseases (INFINITy), Inserm UMR1291, CNRS UMR5051, University Paul Sabatier, CHU Purpan, Toulouse 31024, France
| | - Martin Turner
- Immunology Program, The Babraham Institute, Babraham Research Campus, Cambridge CB22 3AT, UK
| | - Manuel D. Diaz-Muñoz
- Toulouse Institute for Infectious and Inflammatory Diseases (INFINITy), Inserm UMR1291, CNRS UMR5051, University Paul Sabatier, CHU Purpan, Toulouse 31024, France,Corresponding author
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Fasimoye RY, Spencer R, Soto-Martin E, Eijlers P, Elmassoudi H, Brivio S, Mangana C, Sabele V, Rechtorikova R, Wenzel M, Connolly B, Pettitt J, Müller B. A novel, essential trans-splicing protein connects the nematode SL1 snRNP to the CBC-ARS2 complex. Nucleic Acids Res 2022; 50:7591-7607. [PMID: 35736244 PMCID: PMC9303266 DOI: 10.1093/nar/gkac534] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2021] [Revised: 06/01/2022] [Accepted: 06/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Spliced leader trans-splicing is essential for gene expression in many eukaryotes. To elucidate the molecular mechanism of this process, we characterise the molecules associated with the Caenorhabditis elegans major spliced leader snRNP (SL1 snRNP), which donates the spliced leader that replaces the 5' untranslated region of most pre-mRNAs. Using a GFP-tagged version of the SL1 snRNP protein SNA-1 created by CRISPR-mediated genome engineering, we immunoprecipitate and identify RNAs and protein components by RIP-Seq and mass spectrometry. This reveals the composition of the SL1 snRNP and identifies associations with spliceosome components PRP-8 and PRP-19. Significantly, we identify a novel, nematode-specific protein required for SL1 trans-splicing, which we designate SNA-3. SNA-3 is an essential, nuclear protein with three NADAR domains whose function is unknown. Mutation of key residues in NADAR domains inactivates the protein, indicating that domain function is required for activity. SNA-3 interacts with the CBC-ARS2 complex and other factors involved in RNA metabolism, including SUT-1 protein, through RNA or protein-mediated contacts revealed by yeast two-hybrid assays, localisation studies and immunoprecipitations. Our data are compatible with a role for SNA-3 in coordinating trans-splicing with target pre-mRNA transcription or in the processing of the Y-branch product of the trans-splicing reaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rotimi Yemi Fasimoye
- School of Medicine, Medical Sciences and Nutrition, University of Aberdeen, Institute of Medical Sciences, Foresterhill, Aberdeen AB25 2ZD, Scotland, UK
| | - Rosie Elizabeth Barker Spencer
- School of Medicine, Medical Sciences and Nutrition, University of Aberdeen, Institute of Medical Sciences, Foresterhill, Aberdeen AB25 2ZD, Scotland, UK
| | - Eva Soto-Martin
- School of Medicine, Medical Sciences and Nutrition, University of Aberdeen, Institute of Medical Sciences, Foresterhill, Aberdeen AB25 2ZD, Scotland, UK
| | - Peter Eijlers
- School of Medicine, Medical Sciences and Nutrition, University of Aberdeen, Institute of Medical Sciences, Foresterhill, Aberdeen AB25 2ZD, Scotland, UK
| | - Haitem Elmassoudi
- School of Medicine, Medical Sciences and Nutrition, University of Aberdeen, Institute of Medical Sciences, Foresterhill, Aberdeen AB25 2ZD, Scotland, UK
| | - Sarah Brivio
- School of Medicine, Medical Sciences and Nutrition, University of Aberdeen, Institute of Medical Sciences, Foresterhill, Aberdeen AB25 2ZD, Scotland, UK
| | - Carolina Mangana
- School of Medicine, Medical Sciences and Nutrition, University of Aberdeen, Institute of Medical Sciences, Foresterhill, Aberdeen AB25 2ZD, Scotland, UK
| | - Viktorija Sabele
- School of Medicine, Medical Sciences and Nutrition, University of Aberdeen, Institute of Medical Sciences, Foresterhill, Aberdeen AB25 2ZD, Scotland, UK
| | - Radoslava Rechtorikova
- School of Medicine, Medical Sciences and Nutrition, University of Aberdeen, Institute of Medical Sciences, Foresterhill, Aberdeen AB25 2ZD, Scotland, UK
| | - Marius Wenzel
- Centre of Genome-Enabled Biology and Medicine, University of Aberdeen, 23 St Machar Drive, Aberdeen AB24 3RY, Scotland, UK
| | - Bernadette Connolly
- School of Medicine, Medical Sciences and Nutrition, University of Aberdeen, Institute of Medical Sciences, Foresterhill, Aberdeen AB25 2ZD, Scotland, UK
| | - Jonathan Pettitt
- School of Medicine, Medical Sciences and Nutrition, University of Aberdeen, Institute of Medical Sciences, Foresterhill, Aberdeen AB25 2ZD, Scotland, UK
| | - Berndt Müller
- School of Medicine, Medical Sciences and Nutrition, University of Aberdeen, Institute of Medical Sciences, Foresterhill, Aberdeen AB25 2ZD, Scotland, UK
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The Multifunctional Faces of T-Cell Intracellular Antigen 1 in Health and Disease. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23031400. [PMID: 35163320 PMCID: PMC8836218 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23031400] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2021] [Revised: 01/13/2022] [Accepted: 01/22/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
T-cell intracellular antigen 1 (TIA1) is an RNA-binding protein that is expressed in many tissues and in the vast majority of species, although it was first discovered as a component of human cytotoxic T lymphocytes. TIA1 has a dual localization in the nucleus and cytoplasm, where it plays an important role as a regulator of gene-expression flux. As a multifunctional master modulator, TIA1 controls biological processes relevant to the physiological functioning of the organism and the development and/or progression of several human pathologies. This review summarizes our current knowledge of the molecular aspects and cellular processes involving TIA1, with relevance for human pathophysiology.
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Wang I, Hennig J, Jagtap PKA, Sonntag M, Valcárcel J, Sattler M. Structure, dynamics and RNA binding of the multi-domain splicing factor TIA-1. Nucleic Acids Res 2014; 42:5949-66. [PMID: 24682828 PMCID: PMC4027183 DOI: 10.1093/nar/gku193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Alternative pre-messenger ribonucleic acid (pre-mRNA) splicing is an essential process in eukaryotic gene regulation. The T-cell intracellular antigen-1 (TIA-1) is an apoptosis-promoting factor that modulates alternative splicing of transcripts, including the pre-mRNA encoding the membrane receptor Fas. TIA-1 is a multi-domain ribonucleic acid (RNA) binding protein that recognizes poly-uridine tract RNA sequences to facilitate 5' splice site recognition by the U1 small nuclear ribonucleoprotein (snRNP). Here, we characterize the RNA interaction and conformational dynamics of TIA-1 by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC) and small angle X-ray scattering (SAXS). Our NMR-derived solution structure of TIA-1 RRM2-RRM3 (RRM2,3) reveals that RRM2 adopts a canonical RNA recognition motif (RRM) fold, while RRM3 is preceded by an non-canonical helix α0. NMR and SAXS data show that all three RRMs are largely independent structural modules in the absence of RNA, while RNA binding induces a compact arrangement. RRM2,3 binds to pyrimidine-rich FAS pre-mRNA or poly-uridine (U9) RNA with nanomolar affinities. RRM1 has little intrinsic RNA binding affinity and does not strongly contribute to RNA binding in the context of RRM1,2,3. Our data unravel the role of binding avidity and the contributions of the TIA-1 RRMs for recognition of pyrimidine-rich RNAs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iren Wang
- Institute of Structural Biology, Helmholtz Zentrum München, Ingolstädter Landstraße 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany Center for Integrated Protein Science Munich and Biomolecular NMR, Department Chemie Technische Universität München, Lichtenbergstraße 4, 85747 Garching, Germany
| | - Janosch Hennig
- Institute of Structural Biology, Helmholtz Zentrum München, Ingolstädter Landstraße 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany Center for Integrated Protein Science Munich and Biomolecular NMR, Department Chemie Technische Universität München, Lichtenbergstraße 4, 85747 Garching, Germany
| | - Pravin Kumar Ankush Jagtap
- Institute of Structural Biology, Helmholtz Zentrum München, Ingolstädter Landstraße 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany Center for Integrated Protein Science Munich and Biomolecular NMR, Department Chemie Technische Universität München, Lichtenbergstraße 4, 85747 Garching, Germany
| | - Miriam Sonntag
- Institute of Structural Biology, Helmholtz Zentrum München, Ingolstädter Landstraße 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany Center for Integrated Protein Science Munich and Biomolecular NMR, Department Chemie Technische Universität München, Lichtenbergstraße 4, 85747 Garching, Germany
| | - Juan Valcárcel
- Centre de Regulació Genòmica and Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Dr. Aiguader 88, 08003 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Michael Sattler
- Institute of Structural Biology, Helmholtz Zentrum München, Ingolstädter Landstraße 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany Center for Integrated Protein Science Munich and Biomolecular NMR, Department Chemie Technische Universität München, Lichtenbergstraße 4, 85747 Garching, Germany
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Bauer WJ, Heath J, Jenkins JL, Kielkopf CL. Three RNA recognition motifs participate in RNA recognition and structural organization by the pro-apoptotic factor TIA-1. J Mol Biol 2011; 415:727-40. [PMID: 22154808 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2011.11.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2011] [Revised: 10/03/2011] [Accepted: 11/22/2011] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
T-cell intracellular antigen-1 (TIA-1) regulates developmental and stress-responsive pathways through distinct activities at the levels of alternative pre-mRNA splicing and mRNA translation. The TIA-1 polypeptide contains three RNA recognition motifs (RRMs). The central RRM2 and C-terminal RRM3 associate with cellular mRNAs. The N-terminal RRM1 enhances interactions of a C-terminal Q-rich domain of TIA-1 with the U1-C splicing factor, despite linear separation of the domains in the TIA-1 sequence. Given the expanded functional repertoire of the RRM family, it was unknown whether TIA-1 RRM1 contributes to RNA binding as well as documented protein interactions. To address this question, we used isothermal titration calorimetry and small-angle X-ray scattering to dissect the roles of the TIA-1 RRMs in RNA recognition. Notably, the fas RNA exhibited two binding sites with indistinguishable affinities for TIA-1. Analyses of TIA-1 variants established that RRM1 was dispensable for binding AU-rich fas sites, yet all three RRMs were required to bind a polyU RNA with high affinity. Small-angle X-ray scattering analyses demonstrated a "V" shape for a TIA-1 construct comprising the three RRMs and revealed that its dimensions became more compact in the RNA-bound state. The sequence-selective involvement of TIA-1 RRM1 in RNA recognition suggests a possible role for RNA sequences in regulating the distinct functions of TIA-1. Further implications for U1-C recruitment by the adjacent TIA-1 binding sites of the fas pre-mRNA and the bent TIA-1 shape, which organizes the N- and C-termini on the same side of the protein, are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- William J Bauer
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry, Rochester, NY 14642, USA
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Wang Z, Kayikci M, Briese M, Zarnack K, Luscombe NM, Rot G, Zupan B, Curk T, Ule J. iCLIP predicts the dual splicing effects of TIA-RNA interactions. PLoS Biol 2010; 8:e1000530. [PMID: 21048981 PMCID: PMC2964331 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.1000530] [Citation(s) in RCA: 185] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2010] [Accepted: 09/15/2010] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
The regulation of alternative splicing involves interactions between RNA-binding proteins and pre-mRNA positions close to the splice sites. T-cell intracellular antigen 1 (TIA1) and TIA1-like 1 (TIAL1) locally enhance exon inclusion by recruiting U1 snRNP to 5' splice sites. However, effects of TIA proteins on splicing of distal exons have not yet been explored. We used UV-crosslinking and immunoprecipitation (iCLIP) to find that TIA1 and TIAL1 bind at the same positions on human RNAs. Binding downstream of 5' splice sites was used to predict the effects of TIA proteins in enhancing inclusion of proximal exons and silencing inclusion of distal exons. The predictions were validated in an unbiased manner using splice-junction microarrays, RT-PCR, and minigene constructs, which showed that TIA proteins maintain splicing fidelity and regulate alternative splicing by binding exclusively downstream of 5' splice sites. Surprisingly, TIA binding at 5' splice sites silenced distal cassette and variable-length exons without binding in proximity to the regulated alternative 3' splice sites. Using transcriptome-wide high-resolution mapping of TIA-RNA interactions we evaluated the distal splicing effects of TIA proteins. These data are consistent with a model where TIA proteins shorten the time available for definition of an alternative exon by enhancing recognition of the preceding 5' splice site. Thus, our findings indicate that changes in splicing kinetics could mediate the distal regulation of alternative splicing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhen Wang
- Medical Research Council (MRC) – Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Hills Road, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Melis Kayikci
- Medical Research Council (MRC) – Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Hills Road, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Michael Briese
- Medical Research Council (MRC) – Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Hills Road, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Kathi Zarnack
- European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL) – European Bioinformatics Institute, Wellcome Trust Genome Campus, Hinxton, United Kingdom
| | - Nicholas M. Luscombe
- European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL) – European Bioinformatics Institute, Wellcome Trust Genome Campus, Hinxton, United Kingdom
- EMBL, Genome Biology Unit, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Gregor Rot
- Faculty of Computer and Information Science, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Blaž Zupan
- Faculty of Computer and Information Science, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Tomaž Curk
- Faculty of Computer and Information Science, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Jernej Ule
- Medical Research Council (MRC) – Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Hills Road, Cambridge, United Kingdom
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Izquierdo JM. Heterogeneous ribonucleoprotein C displays a repressor activity mediated by T-cell intracellular antigen-1-related/like protein to modulate Fas exon 6 splicing through a mechanism involving Hu antigen R. Nucleic Acids Res 2010; 38:8001-14. [PMID: 20699271 PMCID: PMC3001070 DOI: 10.1093/nar/gkq698] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
T-cell intracellular antigen (TIA)-proteins are known regulators of alternative pre-mRNA splicing. In this study, pull-down experiments and mass spectrometry indicate that TIAR/TIAL1 and hnRNP C1/C2 are associated in HeLa nuclear extracts. Co-immunoprecipitation and GST-pull-down assays confirmed this interaction. Interestingly, binding requires the glutamine-rich (Q-rich) C-terminal domain of TIAR and the leucine-rich plus acidic residues-rich C-terminal domains of hnRNP C1/C2. This interaction also occurs in an RNA-dependent manner. Recombinant GFP-TIAR and RFP-hnRNP C1 proteins display partial nuclear co-localization when overexpressed in HeLa cells, and this requires the Q-rich domain of TIAR. hnRNP C1 overexpression in the presence of rate-limiting amounts of TIAR in HeLa and HEK293 cells affects alternative splicing of Fas and FGFR2 minigenes, promoting Fas exon 6 and FGFR2 exon K-SAM skipping, respectively. The repressor activity of hnRNP C1 on Fas exon 6 splicing is mediated by Hu antigen R (HuR). Experiments involving tethering approaches showed that the repressor capacity of hnRNP C1 is associated with an exonic splicing silencer in Fas exon 6. This effect was reversed by splice-site strengthening and is linked to its basic leucine zipper-like motif. These results suggest that hnRNP C1/C2 acts as a bridge between HuR and TIAR to modulate alternative Fas splicing.
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Affiliation(s)
- José M Izquierdo
- Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, C/Nicolás Cabrera 1, Lab-107, Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain.
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Combined use of MS2 and PP7 coat fusions shows that TIA-1 dominates hnRNP A1 for K-SAM exon splicing control. J Biomed Biotechnol 2010; 2009:104853. [PMID: 20130820 PMCID: PMC2814235 DOI: 10.1155/2009/104853] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2009] [Accepted: 10/30/2009] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Splicing of the FGFR2 K-SAM exon is repressed by hnRNP A1 bound to the exon and activated by TIA-1 bound to the downstream intron. Both proteins are expressed similarly by cells whether they splice the exon or not, so it is important to know which one is dominant. To answer this question, we used bacteriophage PP7 and bacteriophage MS2 coat fusions to tether hnRNP A1 and TIA-1 to distinct sites on the same pre-mRNA molecule. hnRNP A1 fused to one coat protein was tethered to a K-SAM exon containing the corresponding coat protein's binding site. TIA-1 fused to the other coat protein was tethered to the downstream intron containing that coat protein's binding site. This led to efficient K-SAM exon splicing. Our results show that TIA-1 is dominant for K-SAM exon splicing control and validate the combined use of PP7 and MS2 coat proteins for studying posttranscriptional events.
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Aznarez I, Barash Y, Shai O, He D, Zielenski J, Tsui LC, Parkinson J, Frey BJ, Rommens JM, Blencowe BJ. A systematic analysis of intronic sequences downstream of 5' splice sites reveals a widespread role for U-rich motifs and TIA1/TIAL1 proteins in alternative splicing regulation. Genome Res 2008; 18:1247-58. [PMID: 18456862 DOI: 10.1101/gr.073155.107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
To identify human intronic sequences associated with 5' splice site recognition, we performed a systematic search for motifs enriched in introns downstream of both constitutive and alternative cassette exons. Significant enrichment was observed for U-rich motifs within 100 nucleotides downstream of 5' splice sites of both classes of exons, with the highest enrichment between positions +6 and +30. Exons adjacent to U-rich intronic motifs contain lower frequencies of exonic splicing enhancers and higher frequencies of exonic splicing silencers, compared with exons not followed by U-rich intronic motifs. These findings motivated us to explore the possibility of a widespread role for U-rich motifs in promoting exon inclusion. Since cytotoxic granule-associated RNA binding protein (TIA1) and TIA1-like 1 (TIAL1; also known as TIAR) were previously shown in vitro to bind to U-rich motifs downstream of 5' splice sites, and to facilitate 5' splice site recognition in vitro and in vivo, we investigated whether these factors function more generally in the regulation of splicing of exons followed by U-rich intronic motifs. Simultaneous knockdown of TIA1 and TIAL1 resulted in increased skipping of 36/41 (88%) of alternatively spliced exons associated with U-rich motifs, but did not affect 32/33 (97%) alternatively spliced exons that are not associated with U-rich motifs. The increase in exon skipping correlated with the proximity of the first U-rich motif and the overall "U-richness" of the adjacent intronic region. The majority of the alternative splicing events regulated by TIA1/TIAL1 are conserved in mouse, and the corresponding genes are associated with diverse cellular functions. Based on our results, we estimate that approximately 15% of alternative cassette exons are regulated by TIA1/TIAL1 via U-rich intronic elements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabel Aznarez
- Program in Genetics and Genome Biology, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON, Canada
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