S-Allylcysteine reduces breast tumor cell adhesion and invasion

S-allyl-cysteine triggers cytotoxic events in rat glioblastoma RG2 and C6 cells and improves the effect of temozolomide through the regulation of oxidative responses

Glioblastoma (GBM) is an aggressive form of cancer affecting the Central Nervous System (CNS) of thousands of people every year. Redox alterations have been shown to play a key role in the development and progression of these tumors as Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) formation is involved in the modulation of several signaling pathways, transcription factors, and cytokine formation. The second-generation oral alkylating agent temozolomide (TMZ) is the first-line chemotherapeutic drug used to treat of GBM, though patients often develop primary and secondary resistance, reducing its efficacy. Antioxidants represent promising and potential coadjutant agents as they can reduce excessive ROS formation derived from chemo- and radiotherapy, while decreasing pharmacological resistance. S-allyl-cysteine (SAC) has been shown to inhibit the proliferation of several types of cancer cells, though its precise antiproliferative mechanisms remain poorly investigated. To date, SAC effects have been poorly explored in GBM cells. Here, we investigated the effects of SAC in vitro, either alone or in combination with TMZ, on several toxic and modulatory endpoints-including oxidative stress markers and transcriptional regulation-in two glioblastoma cell lines from rats, RG2 and C6, to elucidate some of the biochemical and cellular mechanisms underlying its antiproliferative properties. SAC (1-750 µM) decreased cell viability in both cell lines in a concentration-dependent manner, although C6 cells were more resistant to SAC at several of the tested concentrations. TMZ also produced a concentration-dependent effect, decreasing cell viability of both cell lines. In combination, SAC (1 µM or 100 µM) and TMZ (500 µM) enhanced the effects of each other. SAC also augmented the lipoperoxidative effect of TMZ and reduced cell antioxidant resistance in both cell lines by decreasing the TMZ-induced increase in the GSH/GSSG ratio. In RG2 and C6 cells, SAC per se had no effect on Nrf2/ARE binding activity, while in RG2 cells TMZ and the combination of SAC + TMZ decreased this activity. Our results demonstrate that SAC, alone or in combination with TMZ, exerts antitumor effects mediated by regulatory mechanisms of redox activity responses. SAC is also a safe drug for testing in other models as it produces non-toxic effects in primary astrocytes. Combined, these effects suggest that SAC affords antioxidant properties and potential antitumor efficacy against GBM.

S-Allyl-L-Cysteine Affects Cell Proliferation and Expression of H2S-Synthetizing Enzymes in MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 Adenocarcinoma Cell Lines

S-allyl-L-cysteine (SAC) is a sulfur compound present in fresh garlic. The reference literature describes its anticancer, antioxidant and neuroprotective effects. Breast cancer is infamously known as one of the most commonly diagnosed malignancies among women worldwide. Its morbidity and mortality make it reasonable to complete and expand knowledge on this cancer's characteristics. Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and its naturally occurring donors are well-known investigation subjects for diverse therapeutic purposes. This study was conducted to investigate the SAC antiproliferative potential and effect on three enzymes involved in H2S metabolism: 3-mercaptopyruvate sulfurtransferase (MPST), cystathionine γ-lyase (CTH), and cystathionine β-synthase (CBS). We chose the in vitro cellular model of human breast adenocarcinomas: MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231. The expression of enzymes after 2, 4, 6, 8, and 24 h incubation with 2.24 mM, 3.37 mM, and 4.50 mM SAC concentrations was examined. The number of living cells was determined by the MTS assay. Changes in cellular plasma membrane integrity were measured by the LDH test. Expression changes at the protein level were analyzed using Western blot. A significant decrease in viable cells was registered for MCF-7 cells after all incubation times upon 4.50 mM SAC exposure, and after 6 and 24 h only in MDA-MB-231 upon 4.50 mM SAC. In both cell lines, the MPST gene expression significantly increased after the 24 h incubation with 4.50 mM SAC. S-allyl-L-cysteine had opposite effects on changes in CTH and CBS expression in both cell lines. In our research model, we confirmed the antiproliferative potential of SAC and concluded that our studies provided current information about the increase in MPST gene expression mediated by S-allyl-L-cysteine in the adenocarcinoma in vitro cellular model for the MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 cell lines. Further investigation of this in vitro model can bring useful information regarding sulfur enzyme metabolism of breast adenocarcinoma and regulating its activity and expression (gene silencing) in anticancer therapy.

From Natural Sources to Synthetic Derivatives: The Allyl Motif as a Powerful Tool for Fragment-Based Design in Cancer Treatment

Since the beginning of history, natural products have been an abundant source of bioactive molecules for the treatment of different diseases, including cancer. Many allyl derivatives, which have shown anticancer activity both in vitro and in vivo in a large number of cancers, are bioactive molecules found in garlic, cinnamon, nutmeg, or mustard. In addition, synthetic products containing allyl fragments have been developed showing potent anticancer properties. Of particular note is the allyl derivative 17-AAG, which has been evaluated in Phase I and Phase II/III clinical trials for the treatment of multiple myeloma, metastatic melanoma, renal cancer, and breast cancer. In this Perspective, we compile extensive literature evidence with descriptions and discussions of the most recent advances in different natural and synthetic allyl derivatives that could generate cancer drug candidates in the near future.

Ethanol-based garlic extract prevents malignant evolution of non-invasive breast tumor cells induced by moderate hypoxia

BACKGROUND

In breast cancer, low oxygen availability is associated with a more aggressive phenotype and with malignant evolution of non-invasive cells. Natural compounds have long attracted attention in cancer treatment, and in recent years garlic (Allium sativum) organosulfur derivatives have been shown to negatively affect growth and invasion of tumor cells.

METHODS

Homemade ethanol-based garlic extract (GE) was administered to MCF7 and MCF10DCIS breast tumor cell lines grown under moderate hypoxia. Cell cycle, epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition and cancer stem cell markers were evaluated.

RESULTS

We revealed that, in the non-invasive MCF10DCIS cells but not in the post-EMT MCF7 cells, low oxygen availability induced the decrease of E-cadherin and the increase of vimentin and motility, that were prevented by GE administration. In both cell lines, treatment with GE counteracted the up-modulation of CD133 positive cells induced by hypoxia.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, our data firstly revealed anti-cancer properties of garlic in non-invasive breast cancer cells. In particular, they demonstrated a protective role of this natural product against the hypoxia-induced increase of molecules that play crucial roles in tumor evolution, suggesting that garlic derivatives can be considered in new approaches for preventing progression of breast tumors from non-invasive to infiltrating lesions.

Garlic constituents for cancer prevention and therapy: From phytochemistry to novel formulations

Garlic (Allium sativum L.) is one of the oldest plants cultivated for its dietary and medicinal values. This incredible plant is endowed with various pharmacological attributes, such as antimicrobial, antiarthritic, antithrombotic, antitumor, hypoglycemic, and hypolipidemic activities. Among the various beneficial pharmacological effects of garlic, the anticancer activity is presumably the most studied. The consumption of garlic provides strong protection against cancer risk. Taking into account the multi-targeted actions and absence of considerable toxicity, a few active metabolites of garlic are probably to play crucial roles in the killing of cancerous cells. Garlic contains several bioactive molecules with anticancer actions and these include diallyl trisulfide, allicin, diallyl disulfide, diallyl sulfide, and allyl mercaptan. The effects of various garlic-derived products, their phytoconstituents and nanoformulations have been evaluated against skin, prostate, ovarian, breast, gastric, colorectal, oral, liver, and pancreatic cancers. Garlic extract, its phytocompounds and their nanoformulations have been shown to inhibit the different stages of cancer, including initiation, promotion, and progression. Besides, these bioactive metabolites alter the peroxidation of lipid, activity of nitric oxide synthetase, nuclear factor-κB, epidermal growth factor receptor, and protein kinase C, cell cycle, and survival signaling. The current comprehensive review portrays the functions of garlic, its bioactive constituents and nanoformulations against several types of cancers and explores the possibility of developing these agents as anticancer pharmaceuticals.

Improving the bioavailability and bioactivity of garlic bioactive compounds via nanotechnology

This review highlights main bioactive compounds and important biological functions especially anticancer effects of the garlic. In addition, we review current literature on the stability and bioavailability of garlic components. Finally, this review aims to provide a potential strategy for using nanotechnology to increase the stability and solubility of garlic components, providing guidelines for the qualities of garlic products to improve their absorption and prevent their early degradation, and extend their circulation time in the body. The application of nanotechnology to improve the bioavailability and targeting of garlic compounds are expected to provide a theoretical basis for the functional components of garlic to treat human health. We review the improvement of bioavailability and bioactivity of garlic bioactive compounds via nanotechnology, which could promisingly overcome the limitations of conventional garlic products, and would be used to prevent and treat cancer and other diseases in the near future.

S-allylcysteine induces cytotoxic effects in two human lung cancer cell lines via induction of oxidative damage, downregulation of Nrf2 and NF-κB, and apoptosis

In this study, we investigated the putative cytotoxic effect elicited by the garlic-derived compound S-allylcysteine (SAC) in two human cancer cell lines (HCC827 and NCI-H1975) in order to develop an experimental approach to the therapeutic potential of this molecule for lung cancer. Cells were incubated for 24, 48 and 72 h in the presence of SAC (10 or 20 mM), which resulted in a concentration- and time-dependent decrease in cell viability and culture confluence in both cell lines. These effects were contrasted with - and validated through - those observed in an immortalized but nontumorigenic epithelial cell line from human bronchial epithelium (BEAS-2B, negative control) and an adenocarcinoma human alveolar basal epithelial cell line (A549, positive control). SAC (20 mM at 72 h) also increased the oxidative damage to lipids, augmented apoptosis, and decreased the expression of the nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) and the nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) proteins in HCC827 and NCI-H1975 cells. Our results establish the efficacy of SAC in reducing malignant growth and proliferation of lung tumor cells. This effect is mediated by the induction of oxidative damage associated with the downregulation of Nrf2 and NF-κB and their corresponding signaling pathways.

Anticancer potential of garlic and its bioactive constituents: A systematic and comprehensive review

Vegetables of the Allium genus, such as garlic (Allium sativum L.), onions, shallots, leaks, and chives, have been used for many years for food consumption and for medicinal purposes. Historical medical texts have indicated the therapeutic applications of garlic as an antitumor, laxative, diuretic, antibacterial and antifungal agent. Specifically, garlic's antitumor abilities have been traced back 3500 years as a chemotherapeutic agent used in Egypt. Other beneficial effects of garlic consumption include lowering blood pressure, blood cholesterol, sugar and lipids. The processing and aging of garlic result in the production of non-toxic organosulfur by-products. These sulfur-containing compounds, such as allicin, diallyl sulfide, diallyl disulfide, diallyl trisulfide, alliin, S-allylcysteine, and S-allylmercaptocysteine, impact various stages of carcinogenesis. The anticancer mechanisms of action of these garlic-derived phytochemicals include altering mitochondrial permeability, inhibiting angiogenesis, enhancing antioxidative and proapoptotic properties, and regulating cell proliferation. All these effects of garlic's sulfur-compounds have been demonstrated in various human cancers. The intent of this literature research is to explore the potential of garlic-derived products and bioactive organosulfur compounds as cancer chemopreventive and chemotherapeutic agents. This investigation employs criteria for systematic review and critically analyzes published in vitro, in vivo and clinical studies. Concerns and limitations that have arisen in past studies regarding standards of measurement, bioavailability, and method of delivery are addressed. Overall, it is hoped that through this systematic and comprehensive review, future researchers can be acquainted with the updated data assembled on anticancer properties of garlic and its phytoconstituents.

Effect of S-Allyl -L-Cysteine on MCF-7 Cell Line 3-Mercaptopyruvate Sulfurtransferase/Sulfane Sulfur System, Viability and Apoptosis

The S-Allyl-L-cysteine (SAC) component of aged garlic extract (AGE) is proven to have anticancer, antihepatotoxic, neuroprotective and neurotrophic properties. γ-Cystathionase (CTH), cystathionine β-synthase (CBS) and 3-mercaptopyruvate sulfurtransferase (MPST) are involved in H₂S/sulfane sulfur endogenous formation from L-cysteine. The aim of the study was to determine the effect of SAC on MCF-7 cells survival and apoptosis, which is a widely known approach to reduce the number of cancer cells. An additional goal of this paper was to investigate the effect of SAC on the activity and expression of enzymes involved in H₂S production. The experiments were carried out in the human breast adenocarcinoma cell line MCF-7. Changes in the cell viability were determined by MTT assay. Cell survival was determined by flow cytometry (FC). Changes in enzymes expression were analyzed using Western blot. After 24 h and 48 h incubation with 2245 µM SAC, induction of late apoptosis was observed. A decrease in cell viability was observed with increasing SAC concentration and incubation time. SAC had no significant cytotoxic effect on the MCF-7 cells upon all analyzed concentrations. CTH, MPST and CBS expression were confirmed in non-treated MCF-7 cells. Significant decrease in MPST activity at 2245 µM SAC after 24 h and 48 h incubation vs. 1000 µM SAC was associated with decrease in sulfane sulfur levels. The presented results show promising SAC effects regarding the deterioration of the MCF-7 cells’ condition in reducing their viability through the downregulation of MPST expression and sulfate sulfur level reduction.

Association of p38MAPK-p53-Fas aggregation in S-allyl cysteine mediated regulation of hepatocarcinoma

Bioactive components of dietary phytochemicals have been reported to possess antitumor activities. Evidences suggested key role of stress responsive p38MAPK in the induction of nutraceuticals mediated apoptosis in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Current study demonstrated detailed molecular bagatelle associated with p38 MAPK mediated effective suppression of cell growth both in HepG2 and chemically induced liver carcinoma after S-allyl cysteine (SAC) treatment. SAC promoted p38MAPK activity responsible for p53 phosphorylation, its stabilization followed by nuclear translocation leading to induction in expression and oligomerization of Fas protein. Distinctive p38MAPK-p53 axis dependent Fas-FasL-FADD mediated caspase activities along with perturbed cell cycling became normalized with continuation of SAC treatment for another month to diethylnitrosamine induced liver carcinoma. Co-treatment with SB203580, the p38MAPK inhibitor, prevented pro-apoptotic effect of SAC by altering p53 phosphorylation and death inducing signaling complex conformation in HepG2 and induced HCC. Collectively study suggested significant contribution of p38MAPK-p53-DISC-Caspase pathway in the regulation of anti-neoplastic activity of SAC against HCC.

Dietary phytochemicals in the regulation of epithelial to mesenchymal transition and associated enzymes: A promising anticancer therapeutic approach

Epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT) is a biological phenomenon that plays a primordial role for initiation of metastasis. It renders cancer cells with increased self-renewal and tumor-initiating capabilities and exacerbated resistance to apoptosis and chemotherapy. Hence, regulation of EMT stands out to be an important strategy in controlling the behavior of malignant cells. Despite the enormous amount of preclinical data on the implication of EMT in cancer progression, there is still lack of routine clinical translation at therapeutic levels. The need of EMT-modulating drugs with high efficacy and low cytotoxicity has led to studies involving the evaluation of the efficacy of a plethora of various classes of phytochemicals present in dietary sources of fruits and vegetables. This review summarizes the role of these different classes of phytochemicals, their natural/synthetic analogs, and their nano-formulations in regulation of EMT in various preclinical models through attenuation of primary signaling pathways. Numerous proteins, transcription factors and enzymes targeted by various classes of phytochemicals in repression of EMT has been presented in this review. Additionally, we have critically analyzed the existing literature and provided views on new direction for accelerating the discovery of novel drug candidates which could be cautiously administered without concomitant effects.

Recent progress in natural dietary non-phenolic bioactives on cancers metastasis

From several decades ago to now, cancer continues to be the leading cause of death worldwide, and metastasis is the major cause of cancer-related deaths. For health benefits, there is a great desire to use non-chemical therapy such as nutraceutical supplementation to prevent pathology development. Over 10,000 different natural bioactives or phytochemicals have been known that possessing potential preventive or supplementary effects for various diseases including cancer. Previously, the in vitro and in vivo anti-invasive and anti-metastatic activities of phenolic acids, monophenol, polyphenol and their derivatives and flavonoids and their derivatives have been reviewed. However, a vast number of natural dietary compounds other than phenolics have been demonstrated to potentially possess the ability to inhibit the invasion and metastasis of various cancers. In this review, we summarize the studies in recent decade on in vitro and in vivo effects and molecular mechanisms of natural bioactives, excluding the phenolics in food, in cancer invasion and metastasis. By combining this review of non-phenolics with the previous phenolics reviews, the puzzle for the contribution of natural dietary bioactives on cancer invasive or/and metastatic progress will be almost complete and more clear.

Met inactivation by S-allylcysteine suppresses the migration and invasion of nasopharyngeal cancer cells induced by hepatocyte growth factor

Purpose

Past studies have reported that S-allylcysteine (SAC) inhibits the migration and invasion of cancer cells through the restoration of E-cadherin, the reduction of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) and Slug protein expression, and inhibition of the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Furthermore, evidence is emerging that shows that ROS induced by radiation could increase Met activation. Following on these reports of SAC and Met, we investigated whether SAC could suppress Met activation.

Materials and Methods

Wound healing, invasion, 3-[4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl]-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium (MTT), soft agar colony forming, western blotting, and gelatin zymography assays were performed in the human nasopharyngeal cancer cell lines HNE1 and HONE1 treated with SAC (0, 10, 20, or 40 mM) and hepatocyte growth factor (HGF).

Results

This study showed that SAC could suppress the migration and invasion of HNE1 and HONE1 cell lines by inhibiting p-Met. An increase of migration and invasion induced by HGF and its decrease in a dose dependent manner by SAC in wound healing and invasion assays was observed. The reduction of p-Met by SAC was positively correlated with p-focal adhesion kinase (p-FAK) and p-extracellular related kinase (p-ERK in both cell lines). SAC reduced Slug, MMP2, and MMP9 involved in migration and invasion with the inhibition of Met-FAK signaling.

Conclusion

These results suggest that SAC inhibited not only Met activation but also the downstream FAK, Slug, and MMP expression. Finally, SAC may be a potent anticancer compound for nasopharyngeal cancer treated with radiotherapy.

S-allylcysteine, a garlic derivative, suppresses proliferation and induces apoptosis in human ovarian cancer cells in vitro

AIM

To investigate the effects of S-allylcysteine (SAC), a water-soluble garlic derivative, on human ovarian cancer cells in vitro.

METHODS

Human epithelial ovarian cancer cell line A2780 was tested. Cell proliferation was examined with CCK-8 and colony formation assays. Cell cycle was analyzed with flow cytometry. Cell apoptosis was studied using Hoechst 33258 staining and Annexin V/PI staining with flow cytometry. The migration and invasion of A2780 cells were examined with transwell and wound healing assays. The expression of relevant proteins was detected with Western blot assays.

RESULTS

SAC (1-100 mmol/L) inhibited the proliferation of A2780 cells in dose- and time-dependent manners (the IC50 value was approximately 25 mmol/L at 48 h, and less than 6.25 mmol/L at 96 h). Furthermore, SAC dose-dependently inhibited the colony formation of A2780 cells. Treatment of A2780 cells with SAC resulted in G1/S phase arrest and induced apoptosis, accompanied by decreased expression of pro-caspase-3, Parp-1 and Bcl-2, and increased expression of active caspase-3 and Bax. SAC treatment significantly reduced the migration of A2780 cells, and markedly decreased the protein expression of Wnt5a, p-AKT and c-Jun, which were the key proteins involved in proliferation and metastasis.

CONCLUSION

SAC suppresses proliferation and induces apoptosis in A2780 ovarian cancer cells in vitro.

A garlic derivative, S-allylcysteine (SAC), suppresses proliferation and metastasis of hepatocellular carcinoma

BACKGROUND

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is highly malignant and metastatic. Currently, there is no effective chemotherapy for patients with advanced HCC leading to an urgent need to seek for novel therapeutic options. We aimed to investigate the effect of a garlic derivative, S-allylcysteine (SAC), on the proliferation and metastasis of HCC.

METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS

A series of in vitro experiments including MTT, colony-forming, wound-healing, invasion, apoptosis and cell cycle assays were performed to examine the anti-proliferative and anti-metastatic effects of SAC on a metastatic HCC cell line MHCC97L. The therapeutic values of SAC single and combined with cisplatin treatments were examined in an in vivo orthotopic xenograft liver tumor model. The result showed that the proliferation rate and colony-forming abilities of MHCC97L cells were suppressed by SAC together with significant suppression of the expressions of proliferation markers, Ki-67 and proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA). Moreover, SAC hindered the migration and invasion of MHCC97L cells corresponding with up-regulation of E-cadherin and down-regulation of VEGF. Furthermore, SAC significantly induced apoptosis and necrosis of MHCC97L cells through suppressing Bcl-xL and Bcl-2 as well as activating caspase-3 and caspase-9. In addition, SAC could significantly induce the S phase arrest of MHCC97L cells together with down-regulation of cdc25c, cdc2 and cyclin B1. In vivo xenograft liver tumor model demonstrated that SAC single or combined with cisplatin treatment inhibited the progression and metastasis of HCC tumor.

CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE

Our data demonstrate the anti-proliferative and anti-metastatic effects of SAC on HCC cells and suggest that SAC may be a potential therapeutic agent for the treatment of HCC patients.

S-Allylcysteine inhibits tumour progression and the epithelial–mesenchymal transition in a mouse xenograft model of oral cancer

Oral cancer is prevalent worldwide. Studies have indicated that an increase in the osteopontin (OPN) plasma level is correlated with the progression of oral cancer. Our previous report showed that the aqueous garlic extract S-allylcysteine (SAC) inhibited the epithelial–mesenchymal transition (EMT) of human oral cancer CAL-27 cells in vitro. Therefore, the present study investigated whether SAC consumption would help prevent tumour growth and progression, including the EMT, in a mouse xenograft model of oral cancer. The results demonstrated that SAC dose-dependently inhibited the growth of oral cancer in tumour-bearing mice. The histopathological and immunohistochemical staining results indicated that SAC was able to effectively suppress the tumour growth and progression of oral cancer in vivo. The chemopreventive effect of SAC was associated with the suppression of carcinogenesis factors such as N-methylpurine DNA glycosylase and OPN. SAC significantly suppressed the phosphorylation of Akt, mammalian target of rapamycin, inhibitor of κBα and extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 in tumour tissues. The results demonstrated that the SAC-mediated suppression of cyclin D1 protein was associated with an augmented expression of the cell-cycle inhibitor p16Ink4. Furthermore, SAC inhibited the expression of cyclo-oxygenase-2, vimentin and NF-κB p65 (RelA). These results show that SAC has potential as an agent against tumour growth and the progression of oral cancer in a mouse xenograft model.

Consumption of S-allylcysteine inhibits the growth of human non-small-cell lung carcinoma in a mouse xenograft model

Lung cancer is one of the leading causes of cancer death in the world. Human non-small-cell lung carcinoma (NSCLC) accounts for almost 80% of lung cancer cases. Aberrant phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)/Akt/mTOR signaling pathways play important roles and have been widely observed in the development of NSCLC. Previous studies indicated that garlic extracts such as diallyl disulfide (DADS) and diallyl trisulfide (DATS) could inhibit the proliferation of several types of cancer in vitro. However, the inhibitory effects of S-allylcysteine (SAC) on the growth of NSCLC have not been demonstrated yet. Therefore, this study investigated whether consumption of SAC could prevent the growth of NSCLC in both in vitro and in vivo models. It was found that SAC significantly inhibited the proliferation of human NSCLC A-549 cells in vitro. Treatment of the NF-κB inhibitor, Bay-11-7082, could significantly inhibit the proliferation of NSCLC A-549 cells. The results demonstrated that SAC significantly suppressed the activation of mTOR, NF-κB, and cyclin D1 molecules in vitro. Furthermore, the results demonstrated that consumption of SAC significantly inhibited the growth of highly metastatic human NSCLC cells in tumor-bearing mice. Bioluminescence imaging and pathological and immunohistochemical (IHC) staining results also indicated that SAC could effectively suppress the growth and malignant progression of human NSCLC in vivo. The chemopreventive effects of SAC were associated with suppression of mTOR and NF-κB molecules in vivo. These results suggested that SAC could act as an effective agent against the malignant progression of human NSCLC in both in vitro and in vivo models.

Hereditary breast cancer: new genetic developments, new therapeutic avenues

Six genes confer a high risk for developing breast cancer (BRCA1/2, TP53, PTEN, STK11, CDH1). Both BRCA1 and BRCA2 have DNA repair functions, and BRCA1/2 deficient tumors are now being targeted by poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase inhibitors. Other genes conferring an increased risk for breast cancer include ATM, CHEK2, PALB2, BRIP1 and genome-wide association studies have identified lower penetrance alleles including FGFR2, a minor allele of which is associated with breast cancer. We review recent findings related to the function of some of these genes, and discuss how they can be targeted by various drugs. Gaining deeper insights in breast cancer susceptibility will improve our ability to identify those families at increased risk and permit the development of new and more specific therapeutic approaches.