Property of cold inducible DEAD-box RNA helicase in hyperthermophilic archaea

Genome-wide identification and analysis of DEAD-box RNA helicases in Gossypium hirsutum

DEAD-box RNA helicases, a prominent subfamily within the RNA helicase superfamily 2 (SF2), play crucial roles in the growth, development, and abiotic stress responses of plants. This study identifies 146 DEAD-box RNA helicase genes (GhDEADs) and categorizes them into four Clades (Clade A-D) through phylogenetic analysis. Promoter analysis reveals cis-acting elements linked to plant responses to light, methyl jasmonate (MeJA), abscisic acid (ABA), low temperature, and drought. RNA-seq data demonstrate that Clade C GhDEADs exhibit elevated and ubiquitous expression across different tissues, validating their connection to leaf development through real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) analysis. Notably, over half of GhDEADs display up-regulation in the leaves of virus-induced gene silencing (VIGS) plants of GhVIR-A/D (members of m6A methyltransferase complex, which regulate leaf morphogenesis). In conclusion, this study offers a comprehensive insight into GhDEADs, emphasizing their potential involvement in leaf development.

Transcriptomic analysis of Litopenaeus vannamei hepatopancreas under cold stress in cold-tolerant and cold-sensitive cultivars

Litopenaeus vannamei (L. vannamei) is one of the most widely cultured shrimp species in the world. The species often suffers from cold stress. To understand the molecular mechanism of cold tolerance, we performed transcriptomic analysis on two contrasting cultivars of L. vannamei, namely, cold-tolerant Guihai 2 (GH2) and cold-sensitive Guihai1 (GH1), under a control temperature (28 °C), cold stress (16 °C), and recovery to 28 °C. A total of 84.5 Gb of sequences were generated from 12 L. vannamei hepatopancreas libraries. The de-novo assembly generated a total of 143,029 unigenes with a mean size of 1,052 bp and an N50 of 2,604 bp, of which 34.08% were annotated in the Nr database. We analyzed the differentially expressed genes (DEGs) between nine comparison groups and detected a total of 21,026 DEGs. KEGG pathways, including lysosome, sphingolipid metabolism and nitrogen metabolism, were significantly enriched by DEGs between different temperatures in GH2. Furthermore, eight of the most significantly DEGs under cold stress from the transcriptomic analysis were selected for quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) validation. Overall, we compared gene expression changes under cold stress in cold-tolerant and cold-sensitive L. vannamei for the first time. The results may further extend our understanding of the cold stress-response mechanism in L. vannamei.

Non-Psychrophilic Methanogens Capable of Growth Following Long-Term Extreme Temperature Changes, with Application to Mars

Although the martian environment is currently cold and dry, geomorphological features on the surface of the planet indicate relatively recent (<4 My) freeze/thaw episodes. Additionally, the recent detections of near-subsurface ice as well as hydrated salts within recurring slope lineae suggest potentially habitable micro-environments within the martian subsurface. On Earth, microbial communities are often active at sub-freezing temperatures within permafrost, especially within the active layer, which experiences large ranges in temperature. With warming global temperatures, the effect of thawing permafrost communities on the release of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide and methane becomes increasingly important. Studies examining the community structure and activity of microbial permafrost communities on Earth can also be related to martian permafrost environments, should life have developed on the planet. Here, two non-psychrophilic methanogens, Methanobacterium formicicum and Methanothermobacter wolfeii, were tested for their ability to survive long-term (~4 year) exposure to freeze/thaw cycles varying in both temperature and duration, with implications both for climate change on Earth and possible life on Mars.

Some Liked It Hot: A Hypothesis Regarding Establishment of the Proto-Mitochondrial Endosymbiont During Eukaryogenesis

Eukaryotic cells are characterized by a considerable increase in subcellular compartmentalization when compared to prokaryotes. Most evidence suggests that the earliest eukaryotes consisted of mitochondria derived from an α-proteobacterial ancestor enclosed within an archaeal host cell. However, what benefits the archaeal host and the proto-mitochondrial endosymbiont might have obtained at the beginning of this endosymbiotic relationship remains unclear. In this work, I argue that heat generated by the proto-mitochondrion initially permitted an archaeon living at high temperatures to colonize a cooler environment, thereby removing apparent limitations on cellular complexity. Furthermore, heat generation by the endosymbiont would have provided phenotypic flexibility not available through fixed alleles selected for fitness at specific temperatures. Finally, a role for heat production by the proto-mitochondrion bridges a conceptual gap between initial endosymbiont entry to the archaeal host and a later role for mitochondrial ATP production in permitting increased cellular complexity.

Enhanced detection of RNA by MMLV reverse transcriptase coupled with thermostable DNA polymerase and DNA/RNA helicase

Detection of mRNA is a valuable method for monitoring the specific gene expression. In this study, we devised a novel cDNA synthesis method using three enzymes, the genetically engineered thermostable variant of reverse transcriptase (RT), MM4 (E286R/E302K/L435R/D524A) from Moloney murine leukemia virus (MMLV), the genetically engineered variant of family A DNA polymerase with RT activity, K4pol_L329A from thermophilic Thermotoga petrophila K4, and the DNA/RNA helicase Tk-EshA from a hyperthermophilic archaeon Thermococcus kodakarensis. By optimizing assay conditions for three enzymes using Taguchi's method, 100 to 1000-fold higher sensitivity was achieved for cDNA synthesis than conventional assay condition using only RT. Our results suggest that DNA polymerase with RT activity and DNA/RNA helicase are useful to increase the sensitivity of cDNA synthesis.

Knockout and functional analysis of two DExD/H-box family helicase genes in Sulfolobus islandicus REY15A

DExD/H-box helicases represent the largest family of helicases. They belong to superfamily 2 helicases and participate in nucleotide metabolism, ribosome biogenesis, and nucleocytoplasmic transport. The biochemical properties and structures of some DExD/H-box helicases in the archaea have been documented, but many of them have not been characterized; and reports on in vivo functional analyses are limited. In this study, we attempted gene knockout of 8 putative DExD/H-box helicases in Sulfolobus islandicus REY15A and obtained two deletion mutants, SiRe_0681 and SiRe_1605. We determined that ΔSiRe_0681 grew faster than wild type cells in the presence of methyl methanesulfonate (MMS). Flow cytometry analysis showed that this strain had fewer G1/S phase cells than the wild type, and the genes coding for cell division proteins were up-regulated. The stain ΔSiRe_1605 was more sensitive to MMS than the wild type cell, and many nucleotide metabolism and DNA repair enzymes were found to be down-regulated. Intriguingly, deletion of either gene led to silencing simultaneously of over 80 genes located at a specific region. This study provides a novel insight into the in vivo functions of predicted DExD/H-box family helicases in the archaea.

Application of a Euryarchaeota-Specific Helicase from Thermococcus kodakarensis for Noise Reduction in PCR

DNA/RNA helicases, which are enzymes for eliminating hydrogen bonds between bases of DNA/DNA, DNA/RNA, and RNA/RNA using the energy of ATP hydrolysis, contribute to various biological activities. In the present study, the Euryarchaeota-specific helicase EshA (TK0566) from the hyperthermophilic archaeon Thermococcus kodakarensis (Tk-EshA) was obtained as a recombinant form, and its enzymatic properties were examined. Tk-EshA exhibited maximal ATPase activity in the presence of RNA at 80°C. Unwinding activity was evaluated with various double-stranded DNAs (forked, 5' overhung, 3' overhung, and blunt end) at 50°C. Tk-EshA unwound forked and 3' overhung DNAs. These activities were expected to unwind the structured template and to peel off misannealed primers when Tk-EshA was added to a PCR mixture. To examine the effect of Tk-EshA on PCR, various target DNAs were selected, and DNA synthesis was investigated. When 16S rRNA genes were used as a template, several misamplified products (noise DNAs) were detected in the absence of Tk-EshA. In contrast, noise DNAs were eliminated in the presence of Tk-EshA. Noise reduction by Tk-EshA was also confirmed when Taq DNA polymerase (a family A DNA polymerase, PolI type) and KOD DNA polymerase (a family B DNA polymerase, α type) were used for PCR. Misamplified bands were also eliminated during toxA gene amplification from Pseudomonas aeruginosa DNA, which possesses a high GC content (69%). Tk-EshA addition was more effective than increasing the annealing temperature to reduce misamplified DNAs during toxA amplification. Tk-EshA is a useful tool to reduce noise DNAs for accurate PCR.

IMPORTANCE

PCR is a technique that is useful for genetic diagnosis, genetic engineering, and detection of pathogenic microorganisms. However, troubles with nonspecific DNA amplification often occur from primer misannealing. In order to achieve a specific DNA amplification by eliminating noise DNAs derived from primer misannealing, a thermostable Euryarchaeota-specific helicase (Tk-EshA) was included in the PCR mixture. The addition of Tk-EshA has reduced noise DNAs in PCR.

Assessing the Ecophysiology of Methanogens in the Context of Recent Astrobiological and Planetological Studies

Among all known microbes capable of thriving under extreme and, therefore, potentially extraterrestrial environmental conditions, methanogens from the domain Archaea are intriguing organisms. This is due to their broad metabolic versatility, enormous diversity, and ability to grow under extreme environmental conditions. Several studies revealed that growth conditions of methanogens are compatible with environmental conditions on extraterrestrial bodies throughout the Solar System. Hence, life in the Solar System might not be limited to the classical habitable zone. In this contribution we assess the main ecophysiological characteristics of methanogens and compare these to the environmental conditions of putative habitats in the Solar System, in particular Mars and icy moons. Eventually, we give an outlook on the feasibility and the necessity of future astrobiological studies concerning methanogens.

Genome-wide identification of SF1 and SF2 helicases from archaea

Archaea microorganisms have long been used as model organisms for the study of protein molecular machines. Archaeal proteins are particularly appealing to study since archaea, even though prokaryotic, possess eukaryotic-like cellular processes. Super Family I (SF1) and Super Family II (SF2) helicase families have been studied in many model organisms, little is known about their presence and distribution in archaea. We performed an exhaustive search of homologs of SF1 and SF2 helicase proteins in 95 complete archaeal genomes. In the present study, we identified the complete sets of SF1 and SF2 helicases in archaea. Comparative analysis between archaea, human and the bacteria E. coli SF1 and SF2 helicases, resulted in the identification of seven helicase families conserved among representatives of the domains of life. This analysis suggests that these helicase families are highly conserved throughout evolution. We highlight the conserved motifs of each family and characteristic domains of the detected families. Distribution of SF1/SF2 families show that Ski2-like, Lhr, Sfth and Rad3-like helicases are ubiquitous among archaeal genomes while the other families are specific to certain archaeal groups. We also report the presence of a novel SF2 helicase specific to archaea domain named Archaea Specific Helicase (ASH). Phylogenetic analysis indicated that ASH has evolved in Euryarchaeota and is evolutionary related to the Ski2-like family with specific characteristic domains. Our study provides the first exhaustive analysis of SF1 and SF2 helicases from archaea. It expands the variety of SF1 and SF2 archaeal helicases known to exist to date and provides a starting point for new biochemical and genetic studies needed to validate their biological functions.

Primary transcriptome map of the hyperthermophilic archaeon Thermococcus kodakarensis

Background

Prokaryotes have relatively small genomes, densely-packed with protein-encoding sequences. RNA sequencing has, however, revealed surprisingly complex transcriptomes and here we report the transcripts present in the model hyperthermophilic Archaeon, Thermococcus kodakarensis, under different physiological conditions.

Results

Sequencing cDNA libraries, generated from RNA isolated from cells under different growth and metabolic conditions has identified >2,700 sites of transcription initiation, established a genome-wide map of transcripts, and consensus sequences for transcription initiation and post-transcription regulatory elements. The primary transcription start sites (TSS) upstream of 1,254 annotated genes, plus 644 primary TSS and their promoters within genes, are identified. Most mRNAs have a 5'-untranslated region (5'-UTR) 10 to 50 nt long (median = 16 nt), but ~20% have 5'-UTRs from 50 to 300 nt long and ~14% are leaderless. Approximately 50% of mRNAs contain a consensus ribosome binding sequence. The results identify TSS for 1,018 antisense transcripts, most with sequences complementary to either the 5'- or 3'-region of a sense mRNA, and confirm the presence of transcripts from all three CRISPR loci, the RNase P and 7S RNAs, all tRNAs and rRNAs and 69 predicted snoRNAs. Two putative riboswitch RNAs were present in growing but not in stationary phase cells. The procedure used is designed to identify TSS but, assuming that the number of cDNA reads correlates with transcript abundance, the results also provide a semi-quantitative documentation of the differences in T. kodakarensis genome expression under different growth conditions and confirm previous observations of substrate-dependent specific gene expression. Many previously unanticipated small RNAs have been identified, some with relative low GC contents (≤50%) and sequences that do not fold readily into base-paired secondary structures, contrary to the classical expectations for non-coding RNAs in a hyperthermophile.

Conclusion

The results identify >2,700 TSS, including almost all of the primary sites of transcription initiation upstream of annotated genes, plus many secondary sites, sites within genes and sites resulting in antisense transcripts. The T. kodakarensis genome is small (~2.1 Mbp) and tightly packed with protein-encoding genes, but the transcriptomes established also contain many non-coding RNAs and predict extensive RNA-based regulation in this model Archaeon.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/1471-2164-15-684) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Importance and determinants of induction of cold-induced DEAD RNA helicase in the hyperthermophilic archaeon Thermococcus kodakarensis

Thermococcus kodakarensis, which grows optimally at 85°C, expresses cold stress-inducible DEAD box RNA helicase (Tk-deaD) when shifted to 60°C. A DDA1 deletion (ΔTk-deaD) mutant exhibited decreased cell growth, and cells underwent lysis at 60°C in nutrient broth in the absence of elemental sulfur. In contrast, cells in medium containing elemental sulfur at 60°C did not undergo lysis, suggesting that Tk-deaD is necessary for cell growth in sulfur-free medium. To identify the element responsible for the cold response, a pTKR expression probe plasmid was constructed using thermostable catalase from Pyrobaculum calidifontis as a reporter. The plasmid pTKRD, which contained the transcription factor B recognition element, TATA region, and Shine-Dalgarno (SD) region, including the initiation codon of the Tk-deaD gene, exhibited cold inducibility. We also constructed a series of deletion and chimeric constructs with the glutamate dehydrogenase (gdh) promoter, whose expression is constitutive independent of culture temperatures and catalase expression. Reporter assay experiments indicated that the regulatory element is located in the region between the SD region and the initiation codon (ATG). Nucleotide sequences in the upstream regions of Tk-deaD and gdh were compared and revealed a five-adenosine (AAAAA) sequence between SD and ATG of Tk-deaD that was not present in gdh. Replacement of the repeated adenosine sequence with other sequences revealed that the AAAAA sequence is important for cold induction. This sequence-specific mechanism is unique and is one that has not been identified in other known cold-inducible genes.

Functions of DEAD-box proteins in bacteria: current knowledge and pending questions

DEAD-box proteins are RNA-dependent ATPases that are widespread in all three kingdoms of life. They are thought to rearrange the structures of RNA or ribonucleoprotein complexes but their exact mechanism of action is rarely known. Whereas in yeast most DEAD-box proteins are essential, no example of an essential bacterial DEAD-box protein has been reported so far; at most, their absence results in cold-sensitive growth. Moreover, whereas yeast DEAD-box proteins are implicated in virtually all reactions involving RNA, in E. coli (the bacterium where DEAD-box proteins have been mostly studied) their role is limited to ribosome biogenesis, mRNA degradation, and possibly translation initiation. Plausible reasons for these differences are discussed here. In spite of their dispensability, E. coli DEAD-box proteins are valuable models for the mechanism of action of DEAD-box proteins in general because the reactions in which they participate can be reproduced in vitro. Here we review our present understanding of this mechanism of action. Using selected examples for which information is available: (i) we describe how, by interacting directly with a particular RNA motif or by binding to proteins that themselves recognize such a motif, DEAD-box proteins are brought to their specific RNA substrate(s); (ii) we discuss the nature of the structural transitions that DEAD-box proteins induce on their substrates; and (iii) we analyze the reasons why these proteins are mostly important at low temperatures. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: The Biology of RNA helicases-Modulation for life.

RNA helicase 3.6.4.13

EC number

 3.6.4.13

Systematic name

 ATP phosphohydrolase (RNA helix unwinding)

Recommended name

 RNA helicase

Synonyms

 1a NTPase/helicase <16> [5]

 ATP/dATP-dependent RNA helicase <1,42> [32]

 ATPase <10,12> [1,36]

 ATPase/RNA helicase <1,42> [32]

 ATPase/helicase <10> [36,41]

 BMV 1a protein <16> [5]

 BmL3-helicase <1,42> [32]

 Brr2p <6> [50]

 DBP2 <24> [30]

 DDX17 <33> [12]

 DDX19 <43> [56]

 DDX25 <23,34,35> [12,21]

 DDX3 <25> [8]

 DDX3X <25> (<25> the gene is localized to the X chromosome [12]) [12]

 DDX3Y <29> (<29> the gene is localized to the Y chromosome [12]) [12]

 DDX4 <30> [12]

 DDX5 <32> [12]

 DEAD box RNA helicase <1,2,3> [32,45,52]

 DEAD box helicase <2> [45]

 DEAD-box RNA helicase <4,5,7,38,47,48> [9,14,16,25,53,55]

 DEAD-box protein DED1 <38> [11]

 DEAD-box rRNA helicase <5> [26]

 DEAH-box RNA helicase <24> [30]

 DEAH-box protein 2 <24> [30]

 DED1 <38> [11,14]

 DENV NS3H <10> [41]

 DEXD/H-box RNA helicase <43> [56]

 DEx(H/D)RNA helicase <12> [23]

 DHX9 <44> [58]

 DbpA <5> [10,25,26]

 Dhx9/RNA helicase A <13> [61]

 EhDEAD1 <7> [16]

 EhDEAD1 RNA helicase <7> [16]

 FRH <9> [54]

 FRQ-interacting RNA helicase <9> [54]

 GRTH <3> [57]

 GRTH/DDX25 <3,35> [21,51]

 HCV NS3 helicase <12> [48]

 KOKV helicase <27> [7]

 Mtr4p <31> [22]

 NPH-II <8> [18,28]

 NS3 <10,12,17,20,39,41> (<12,39> ambiguous [27,42,44]) [1,2,4,27,35,36,39, 42,44,46]

 NS3 ATPase/helicase <10> [41]

 NS3 NTPase/helicase <17> (<17> ambiguous [46]) [46]

 NS3 helicase <10,12,17> [15,44,46]

 NS3 protein <10,12,17,18> (<12> ambiguous [39]) [15,39,40,41,62]

 NTPase/helicase <12> (<12> ambiguous [37]) [37,39]

 RHA <6> [31,49]

 RNA helicase <2> [45]

 RNA helicase A <6,44> [31,49,58]

 RNA helicase CrhR <14> [59]

 RNA helicase DDX3 <25> [8]

 RNA helicase Ddx39 <47> [53]

 RNA helicase Hera <4> [9]

 RNA-dependent ATPase <37> [34]

 RNA-dependent NTPase/helicase <12> [1]

 RTPase <10> [36]

 RhlB <5> [43]

 SpolvlgA <48> [55]

 Supv3L1 <46> [64]

 TGBp1 NTPase/helicase domain <22,28> [24]

 Tk-DeaD <15> [47]

 VRH1 <26> [33]

 YxiN <2> [45]

 eIF4A <36> [20]

 eIF4A helicase <36> [20]

 eIF4AIII <37> [34]

 eukaryotic initiation factor eIF 4A <36> [20]

 gonadotropin-regulated testicular RNA helicase <3> [51,57]

 helicase <10> [41]

 helicase B <5> [43]

 helicase/nucleoside triphosphatase <10> [4]

 non structural protein 3 <12> (<12> ambiguous [37,38]) [37,38]

 non-structural 3 <10> [36]

 non-structural protein 3 <17> [46]

 non-structural protein 3 protein <18> [40]

 nonstructural protein 3 <12,17,20,39,40,41> (<12,17,39,40> ambiguous [6,27, 39,42,44,46]) [1,2,6,27,35,39,42,44,46]

 nucleoside 5’-triphosphatase <10> [4]

 nucleoside triphosphatase/RNA helicase and 5’-RNA triphosphatase <20> [2]

 nucleoside triphosphatase/helicase <16> [5]

 p54 RNA helicase <45> [60]

 p68 RNA helicase <3,6> [52,63]

 protein NS3 <12> (<12> ambiguous [38]) [38]

RNA helicases: diverse roles in prokaryotic response to abiotic stress

Similar to proteins, RNA molecules must fold into the correct conformation and associate with protein complexes in order to be functional within a cell. RNA helicases rearrange RNA secondary structure and RNA-protein interactions in an ATP-dependent reaction, performing crucial functions in all aspects of RNA metabolism. In prokaryotes, RNA helicase activity is associated with roles in housekeeping functions including RNA turnover, ribosome biogenesis, translation and small RNA metabolism. In addition, RNA helicase expression and/or activity are frequently altered during cellular response to abiotic stress, implying they perform defined roles during cellular adaptation to changes in the growth environment. Specifically, RNA helicases contribute to the formation of cold-adapted ribosomes and RNA degradosomes, implying a role in alleviation of RNA secondary structure stabilization at low temperature. A common emerging theme involves RNA helicases acting as scaffolds for protein-protein interaction and functioning as molecular clamps, holding RNA-protein complexes in specific conformations. This review highlights recent advances in DEAD-box RNA helicase association with cellular response to abiotic stress in prokaryotes.

Kinetic analysis of reverse transcriptase activity of bacterial family A DNA polymerases

Some bacterial thermostable, wild-type or genetically engineered family A DNA polymerases have reverse transcriptase activity. However, difference in reverse transcriptase activities of family A DNA polymerases and retroviral reverse transcriptases (RTs) is unclear. In this study, comparative kinetic analysis was performed for the reverse transcriptase activities of the wild-type enzyme of family A DNA polymerase (M1pol(WT)) from Thermus thermophilus M1 and the variant enzyme of family A DNA polymerase (K4pol(L329A)), in which the mutation of Leu329→Ala is undertaken, from Thermotoga petrophila K4. In the incorporation of dTTP into poly(rA)-p(dT)(45), the reaction rates of K4pol(L329A) and M1pol(WT) exhibited a saturated profile of the Michaelis-Menten kinetics for dTTP concentrations but a substrate inhibition profile for poly(rA)-p(dT)(45) concentrations. In contrast, the reaction rates of Moloney murine leukemia virus (MMLV) RT exhibited saturated profiles for both dTTP and poly(rA)-p(dT)(45) concentrations. This suggests that high concentrations of DNA-primed RNA template decrease the efficiency of cDNA synthesis with bacterial family A DNA polymerases.

Genes encoding putative DEAD-box RNA helicases in Listeria monocytogenes EGD-e are needed for growth and motility at 3°C

Quantitative RT-PCR revealed that transcripts of all four putative DEAD-box RNA helicase genes of the psychrotrophic pathogen Listeria monocytogenes EGD-e are found at higher levels in organisms grown at 3°C than at 37°C. At 3°C, growth of the three corresponding gene deletion mutants Δlmo0866, Δlmo1450 and Δlmo1722 was clearly restricted. The minimum growth temperatures of the three mutants were also higher than that of the wild-type EGD-e. In addition to inability to grow at 3°C, growth of Δlmo0866 and Δlmo1722 was reduced at 25°C, suggesting special roles of Lmo0866 and Lmo1722 in growth at suboptimal temperatures. Growth of Δlmo1450 was restricted not only at 3°C and 25°C, but also at 37°C, suggesting that Lmo1450 plays a universal role in growth of L. monocytogenes EGD-e. Moreover, cold-sensitive Δlmo0866, Δlmo1450 and Δlmo1722 were impaired in motility. The Δlmo0866 and Δlmo1450 strains were non-motile, while Δlmo1722 showed reduced motility. This study shows that the putative DEAD-box RNA helicase genes lmo0866, lmo1450 and lmo1722 are necessary for cold tolerance and motility of L. monocytogenes EGD-e.

Indole-3-glycerol-phosphate synthase is recognized by a cold-inducible group II chaperonin in Thermococcus kodakarensis

Thermococcus kodakarensis optimally grows at 85°C and possesses two chaperonins, cold-inducible CpkA and heat-inducible CpkB. Gene disruptants DA1 (ΔcpkA) and DB1 (ΔcpkB) showed decreased cell growth at 60°C and 93°C, respectively. The DB2 mutant (ΔcpkAcpkB ΔcpkB), whose cpkB gene was expressed under the control of the cpkA promoter, did not grow at 60°C, and the DB3 mutant [ΔcpkA(1-524)cpkB(1-524) ΔcpkB], whose CpkA amino acid residues 1 to 524 were replaced with corresponding CpkB residues that maintained the C-terminal region intact, grew at 60°C, implying that the CpkA C-terminal region plays a key role in cell growth at 60°C. To screen for specific CpkA target proteins, comparative pulldown studies with anti-Cpk were performed using cytoplasmic fractions from DA1 cells cultivated at 93°C and DB1 cells cultivated at 60°C. Among the proteins coprecipitated with anti-Cpk, TK0252, encoding indole-3-glycerol-phosphate synthase (TrpC), showed the highest Mascot score. Counter-pulldown experiments were also performed on DA1 and DB1 extracts using anti-TrpC. CpkA coimmunoprecipitated with anti-TrpC while CpkB did not. The results obtained indicate that TrpC is a specific target for CpkA. The effects of Cpks on denatured TrpC were then examined. The refolding of partially denatured TrpC was accelerated by the addition of CpkA but not by adding CpkB. DA1 cells grew optimally in minimal medium only in the presence of tryptophan but hardly grew in the absence of tryptophan at 60°C. It has been suggested that a lesion of functional TrpC is caused by cpkA disruption, resulting in tryptophan auxotrophy.

Dual biosynthesis pathway for longer-chain polyamines in the hyperthermophilic archaeon Thermococcus kodakarensis

Long-chain and/or branched-chain polyamines are unique polycations found in thermophiles. Cytoplasmic polyamines were analyzed for cells cultivated at various growth temperatures in the hyperthermophilic archaeon Thermococcus kodakarensis. Spermidine [34] and N4-aminopropylspermine [3(3)43] were identified as major polyamines at 60°C, and the amounts of N4-aminopropylspermine [3(3)43] increased as the growth temperature rose. To identify genes involved in polyamine biosynthesis, a gene disruption study was performed. The open reading frames (ORFs) TK0240, TK0474, and TK0882, annotated as agmatine ureohydrolase genes, were disrupted. Only the TK0882 gene disruptant showed a growth defect at 85°C and 93°C, and the growth was partially retrieved by the addition of spermidine. In the TK0882 gene disruptant, agmatine and N1-aminopropylagmatine accumulated in the cytoplasm. Recombinant TK0882 was purified to homogeneity, and its ureohydrolase characteristics were examined. It possessed a 43-fold-higher kcat/Km value for N1-aminopropylagmatine than for agmatine, suggesting that TK0882 functions mainly as N1-aminopropylagmatine ureohydrolase to produce spermidine. TK0147, annotated as spermidine/spermine synthase, was also studied. The TK0147 gene disruptant showed a remarkable growth defect at 85°C and 93°C. Moreover, large amounts of agmatine but smaller amounts of putrescine accumulated in the disruptant. Purified recombinant TK0147 possessed a 78-fold-higher kcat/Km value for agmatine than for putrescine, suggesting that TK0147 functions primarily as an aminopropyl transferase to produce N1-aminopropylagmatine. In T. kodakarensis, spermidine is produced mainly from agmatine via N1-aminopropylagmatine. Furthermore, spermine and N4-aminopropylspermine were detected in the TK0147 disruptant, indicating that TK0147 does not function to produce spermine and long-chain polyamines.