Immunomodulatory drugs act as inhibitors of DNA methyltransferases and induce PU.1 up-regulation in myeloma cells

Targeting the ubiquitin pathway in lymphoid malignancies

Ubiquitination and related cellular processes control a variety of aspects in human cell biology, and defects in these processes contribute to multiple illnesses. In recent decades, our knowledge about the pathological role of ubiquitination in lymphoid cancers and therapeutic strategies to target the modified ubiquitination system has evolved tremendously. Here we review the altered signalling mechanisms mediated by the aberrant expression of cancer-associated E2s/E3s and deubiquitinating enzymes (DUBs), which result in the hyperactivation of oncoproteins or the frequently allied downregulation of tumour suppressors. We discuss recent highlights pertaining to the several different therapeutic interventions which are currently being evaluated to effectively block abnormal ubiquitin-proteasome pathway and the use of heterobifunctional molecules which recruit the ubiquitination system to degrade or stabilize non-cognate substrates. This review aids in comprehension of ubiquitination aberrance in lymphoid cancers and current targeting strategies and elicits further investigations to deeply understand the link between cellular ubiquitination and lymphoid pathogenesis as well as to ameliorate corresponding treatment interventions.

Mechanism and therapeutic implications of pomalidomide-induced immune surface marker upregulation in EBV-positive lymphomas

Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) downregulates immune surface markers to avoid immune recognition. Pomalidomide (Pom) was previously shown to increase immune surface marker expression in EBV-infected tumor cells. We explored the mechanism by which Pom leads to these effects in EBV-infected cells. Pom increased B7-2/CD86 mRNA, protein, and surface expression in EBV-infected cells but this was virtually eliminated in EBV-infected cells made resistant to Pom-induced cytostatic effects. This indicates that Pom initiates the upregulation of these markers by interacting with its target, cereblon. Interestingly, Pom increased the proinflammatory cytokines IP-10 and MIP-1∝/β in EBV infected cells, supporting a possible role for the phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)/AKT pathway in Pom's effects. Idelalisib, an inhibitor of the delta subunit of PI3 Kinase, blocked AKT-Ser phosphorylation and Pom-induced B7-2 surface expression. PU.1 is a downstream target for AKT that is expressed in EBV-infected cells. Pom treatment led to an increase in PU.1 binding to the B7-2 promoter based on ChIP analysis. Thus, our data indicates Pom acts through cereblon leading to degradation of Ikaros and activation of the PI3K/AKT/PU.1 pathway resulting in upregulation of B7-2 mRNA and protein expression. The increased immune recognition in addition to the increases in proinflammatory cytokines upon Pom treatment suggests Pom may be useful in the treatment of EBV-positive lymphomas.

Simultaneous quantification of thalidomide, lenalidomide and pomadomide in plasma by LC-MS/MS

OBJECTIVE

To develop a new method for quantitatively analyzing three immunomodulators (thalidomide, lenalidomide and pomadomide) by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS).

METHODS

Using thalidomide-d4 as internal standard, the three analytes were separated on Agilent Zorbax SB-C18(2.1 mm × 100 mm, 3.5 μm, Agilent, USA) column and monitored in multiple reactions monitoring mode in Agilent G6460A triple quadrupole mass spectrometer operating in positive ionization mode. The sample was pretreated by protein precipitation using methanol at 3-fold volume to sample. The mobile phase was comprised of 0.1% formic acid in water (phase A) and acetonitrile (phase B) and was delivered in gradient elution program. The flow rate was 0.3 mL/min, and the injection volume was 5 μL.

RESULTS

The accuracy and stability of the method are within ±15.0%, and the precision is not >15.0%. The recoveries were 85.04% ∼ 119.07%, and the matrix effect was 73.68% ∼ 116.75%. Specificity, linearity, LLOQ, carry-over and dilution were all in line with the requirements of pharmacopeia and guidelines. The peak concentrations of thalidomide, lenalidomide shows huge inter-individual differences.

CONCLUSIONS

This newly developed method was sensitive, simple, and robust and can be used in therapeutic drug monitoring of three immunomodulators in multiple myeloma patients.

Involvement of EZH2 inhibition in lenalidomide and pomalidomide-mediated growth suppression in HTLV-1-infected cells

Immunomodulatory imide drugs (IMiDs), such as lenalidomide and pomalidomide, exert pleiotropic effects, e.g., antitumor effects in multiple myeloma, by binding the protein Cereblon and altering its substrate specificity. Lenalidomide is approved for the treatment of adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma (ATL) caused by human T-cell leukemia virus type 1 (HTLV-1), although the precise mechanisms responsible for its effectiveness have not been fully elucidated. Here, we used HTLV-1-infected cell lines to investigate how IMiDs exert anti-ATL effects. In three of four tested HTLV-1-infected cell lines, the cells treated with lenalidomide or pomalidomide exhibited mild growth suppression without apoptosis, which was associated with decreased IRF4, c-Myc, and phosphorylated STAT3 levels as well as enhanced SOCS3 expression. Additionally, the levels of enhancer of zeste homolog 2 (EZH2) and trimethyl histone 3 Lys27 (H3K27me3) were decreased following IMiD treatment in all three susceptible cell lines. An IMiD-mediated reduction of EZH2 and H3K27me3 levels was also observed in a multiple myeloma cell line. Furthermore, treatment with an EZH2-inhibitor reproduced the IMiD-mediated effects in HTLV-1-infected cells and multiple myeloma cells. These findings strongly suggest that a reduction of EZH2 expression is involved in the mechanism underlying the antitumor effects of IMiD.

Aberrant Kank1 expression regulates YAP to promote apoptosis and inhibit proliferation in OSCC

The kidney ankyrin repeat-containing protein 1 (Kank1) gene is one of the most important members of the KANK family. Kank1 has hybridity deletion and promoter methylation in the cancer tissues of the brain, lung, kidney and the corresponding cell lines, leading to downregulation of the gene expression. Meanwhile, Kank1 also plays a key role in the occurrence and development of various types of tumors, suggesting that Kank1 may be an anti-oncogene. However, its role and the potential mechanisms in the Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma (OSCC) remain unclear. We examined the expression of Kank1 in OSCC tissues and explored its clinical significance. In addition, we investigated the effects of Kank1 on the biological behavior of OSCC cells and their specific molecular mechanisms. We found that Kank1 was poorly expressed in OSCC tissues and it is correlated with the OSCC stage and the patient's poor prognosis. By overexpression of Kank1, we found that the proliferation ability of the OSCC cells decreased both in vitro and in vivo, the proportion of apoptotic cells increased, and the mitochondrial transmembrane potential decreased. In terms of the molecular mechanism, we confirmed that Kank1 could inhibit the occurrence of OSCC by regulating Yap to inhibit the proliferation and promote apoptosis of the OSCC cells. Moreover, it was found that the overexpression of YAP reversed those effects caused by Kank1 overexpression on the OSCC cells. In conclusion, the research indicated that Kank1 might play an anti-oncogenic role in OSCC and it could be considered to be a target for the diagnosis and the treatment of OSCC.

Epigenetic modifications in multiple myeloma: recent advances on the role of DNA and histone methylation

INTRODUCTION

Multiple Myeloma (MM) is a clonal late B-cell disorder accounting for about 13% of hematological cancers and 1% of all neoplastic diseases. Recent studies on the molecular pathogenesis and biology of MM have highlighted a complex epigenomic landscape contributing to MM onset, prognosis and high individual variability. Areas covered: We describe here the current knowledge on epigenetic events characterizing MM initiation and progression, focusing on the role of DNA and histone methylation and on the most promising epi-therapeutic approaches targeting the methylation pathway. Expert opinion: Data published so far indicate that alterations of the epigenetic framework, which include aberrant global or gene/non-coding RNA specific methylation profiles, feature prominently in the pathobiology of MM. Indeed, the aberrant expression of components of the epigenetic machinery as well as the reversibility of the epigenetic marks make this pathway druggable, providing the basis for the design of epigenetic therapies against this still fatal malignancy.

A xenograft model reveals that PU.1 functions as a tumor suppressor for multiple myeloma in vivo

We previously demonstrated that PU.1 expression is down-regulated in the majority of myeloma cell lines and primary myeloma cells from patients. We introduced the tet-off system into the human myeloma cell lines U266 and KMS12PE that conditionally express PU.1 and demonstrated that PU.1 induces cell cycle arrest and apoptosis in myeloma cells in vitro. Here, we established a mouse xenograft model of myeloma using these cell lines to analyze the effects of PU.1 on the phenotype of myeloma cells in vivo. When doxycycline was added to the drinking water of mice engrafted with these myeloma cells, all mice had continuous growth of subcutaneous tumors and could not survived more than 65 days. In contrast, mice that were not exposed to doxycycline did not develop subcutaneous tumors and survived for at least 100 days. We next generated mice engrafted with subcutaneous tumors 5-10 mm in diameter that were induced by exposure to doxycycline. Half of the mice stopped taking doxycycline-containing water, whereas the other half kept taking the water. Although the tumors in the mice taking doxycycline continued to grow, tumor growth in the mice not taking doxycycline was significantly suppressed. The myeloma cells in the tumors of the mice not taking doxycycline expressed PU.1 and TRAIL and many of such cells were apoptotic. Moreover, the expression of a cell proliferation marker Ki67 was significantly decreased in tumors from the mice not taking doxycycline, compared with that of tumors from the mice continuously taking doxycycline. The present data strongly suggest that PU.1 functions as a tumor suppressor of myeloma cells in vivo.

PU.1 acts as tumor suppressor for myeloma cells through direct transcriptional repression of IRF4

We previously reported that PU.1 is downregulated in the majority of myeloma cell lines and primary myeloma cells of certain myeloma patients, and conditional expression of PU.1 in such myeloma cell lines induced cell cycle arrest and apoptosis. We found downregulation of IRF4 protein in the U266 myeloma cell line following induction of PU.1. Previous studies reported that knockdown of IRF4 in myeloma cell lines induces apoptosis, prompting us to further investigate the role of IRF4 downregulation in PU.1-induced cell cycle arrest and apoptosis in myeloma cells. PU.1 induced downregulation of IRF4 at the protein level, cell cycle arrest and apoptosis in six myeloma cell lines. Chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) revealed that PU.1 directly binds to the IRF4 promoter, whereas a reporter assay showed that PU.1 may suppress IRF4 promoter activity. Stable expression of IRF4 in myeloma cells expressing PU.1 partially rescued the cells from apoptosis induced by PU.1. As it was reported that IRF4 directly binds to the IRF7 promoter and downregulates its expression in activated B cell-like subtype of diffuse large B cell lymphoma cells, we performed ChIP assays and found that IRF4 directly binds the IRF7 promoter in myeloma cells. It is known that IRF7 positively upregulates interferon-β (IFNβ) and induces apoptosis in many cell types. Binding of IRF4 to the IRF7 promoter decreased following PU.1 induction, accompanied by downregulation of IRF4 protein expression. Knockdown of IRF7 protected PU.1-expressing myeloma cells from apoptosis. Furthermore, IFNβ, which is a downstream target of IRF7, was upregulated in myeloma cells along with IRF7 after PU.1 induction. Finally, we evaluated the mRNA expression levels of PU.1, IRF4 and IRF7 in primary myeloma cells from patients and found that PU.1 and IRF7 were strongly downregulated in contrast to the high expression levels of IRF4. These data strongly suggest that PU.1-induced apoptosis in myeloma cells is associated with IRF4 downregulation and subsequent IRF7 upregulation.