Tissue factor mediates microvesicles shedding from MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells

Extracellular vesicles and cancer stem cells: a deadly duo in tumor progression

The global incidence of cancer is increasing, with estimates suggesting that there will be 26 million new cases and 17 million deaths per year by 2030. Cancer stem cells (CSCs) and extracellular vesicles (EVs) are key to the resistance and advancement of cancer. They play a crucial role in tumor dynamics and resistance to therapy. CSCs, initially discovered in acute myeloid leukemia, are well-known for their involvement in tumor initiation, progression, and relapse, mostly because of their distinct characteristics, such as resistance to drugs and the ability to self-renew. EVs, which include exosomes, microvesicles, and apoptotic bodies, play a vital role in facilitating communication between cells within the tumor microenvironment (TME). They have a significant impact on cellular behaviors and contribute to genetic and epigenetic changes. This paper analyzes the mutually beneficial association between CSCs and EVs, emphasizing their role in promoting tumor spread and developing resistance mechanisms. This review aims to investigate the interaction between these entities in order to discover new approaches for attacking the complex machinery of cancer cells. It highlights the significance of CSCs and EVs as crucial targets in the advancement of novel cancer treatments, which helps stimulate additional research, promote progress in ideas for cancer treatment, and provide renewed optimism in the effort to reduce the burden of cancer.

Modeling cancer-associated hypercoagulability using glioblastoma spheroids in microfluidic chips

Background

Cancer increases the risk of venous thromboembolism, and glioblastoma is one of the cancer types with the highest risk of venous thromboembolism (10%-30%). Tumor-intrinsic features are believed to affect vascular permeability and hypercoagulability, but novel models are required to study the pathophysiological dynamics underlying cancer-associated thrombosis at the molecular level.

Objectives

We have developed a novel cancer-on-a-chip model to examine the effects of glioblastoma cells on the deregulation of blood coagulation.

Methods

This was accomplished by coculturing vessel-forming human umbilical vein endothelial cells with glioblastoma spheroids overexpressing tissue factor (TF), the initiator of coagulation (U251 lentivirus, LV-TF) or an LV-control (U251 LV-Ctrl) in an OrganoPlate Graft platform.

Results

Using a modified thrombin generation assay inside the cancer-on-a-chip, we found that U251 LV-Ctrl and U251 LV-TF spheroids promoted an increased procoagulant state in plasma, as was shown by a 3.1- and 7.0-fold increase in endogenous thrombin potential, respectively. Furthermore, the anticoagulant drug rivaroxaban and TF coagulation-blocking antibody 5G9 inhibited the activation of blood coagulation in U251 LV-TF spheroid-containing graft plates, as was shown by a reduced endogenous thrombin potential (4.0- and 4.4-fold, respectively).

Conclusion

With this study, we present a novel 3-dimensional cancer-on-a-chip model that has the potential to be used in the discovery of new anticoagulant drugs and identification of optimal anticoagulant strategies for glioblastoma and other cancer types.

TF/PAR2 Signaling Axis Supports the Protumor Effect of Neutrophil Extracellular Traps (NETs) on Human Breast Cancer Cells

Neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) have been implicated in several hallmarks of cancer. Among the protumor effects, NETs promote epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) in different cancer models. EMT has been linked to an enhanced expression of the clotting-initiating protein, tissue factor (TF), thus favoring the metastatic potential. TF may also exert protumor effects by facilitating the activation of protease-activated receptor 2 (PAR2). Herein, we evaluated whether NETs could induce TF expression in breast cancer cells and further promote procoagulant and intracellular signaling effects via the TF/PAR2 axis. T-47D and MCF7 cell lines were treated with isolated NETs, and samples were obtained for real-time PCR, flow cytometry, Western blotting, and plasma coagulation assays. In silico analyses were performed employing RNA-seq data from breast cancer patients deposited in The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database. A positive correlation was observed between neutrophil/NETs gene signatures and TF gene expression. Neutrophils/NETs gene signatures and PAR2 gene expression also showed a significant positive correlation in the bioinformatics model. In vitro analysis showed that treatment with NETs upregulated TF gene and protein expression in breast cancer cell lines. The inhibition of ERK/JNK reduced the TF gene expression induced by NETs. Remarkably, the pharmacological or genetic inhibition of the TF/PAR2 signaling axis attenuated the NETs-induced expression of several protumor genes. Also, treatment of NETs with a neutrophil elastase inhibitor reduced the expression of metastasis-related genes. Our results suggest that the TF/PAR2 signaling axis contributes to the pro-cancer effects of NETs in human breast cancer cells.

Treatment of congenital coagulopathies, from biologic to biotechnological drugs: The relevance of gene editing (CRISPR/Cas)

Congenital coagulopathies have, throughout the history of medicine, been a focus of scientific study and of great interest as they constitute an alteration of one of the most important and conserved pathways of evolution. The first therapeutic strategies developed to address them were aimed at restoring the blood components lost during hemorrhage by administering whole blood or plasma. Later on, the use of cryoprecipitates was a significant breakthrough as it made it possible to decrease the volumes of blood infused. In the 1970' and 80', clotting factor concentrates became the treatment and, from the 1990's to the present day, recombinant factors -with increasingly longer half-lives- have taken over as the treatment of choice for certain coagulopathies in a seamless yet momentous transition from biological to biotechnological drugs. The beginning of this century, however, saw the emergence of new advanced (gene and cell) treatments, which are currently transforming the therapeutic landscape. The possibility to use cells and viruses as well as specific or bispecific antibodies as medicines is likely to spark a revolution in the world of pharmacology where therapies will be individualized and have long-term effects. Specifically, attention is nowadays focused on the development of gene editing strategies, chiefly those based on CRISPR/Cas technology. Rare coagulopathies such as hemophilia A and B, or even ultra-rare ones such as factor V deficiency, could be among those deriving the greatest benefit from these new developments.

Tissue factor in cancer-associated thromboembolism: possible mechanisms and clinical applications

Venous and arterial thromboses, called as cancer-associated thromboembolism (CAT), are common complications in cancer patients that are associated with high mortality. The cell-surface glycoprotein tissue factor (TF) initiates the extrinsic blood coagulation cascade. TF is overexpressed in cancer cells and is a component of extracellular vesicles (EVs). Shedding of TF⁺EVs from cancer cells followed by association with coagulation factor VII (fVII) can trigger the blood coagulation cascade, followed by cancer-associated venous thromboembolism in some cancer types. Secretion of TF is controlled by multiple mechanisms of TF⁺EV biogenesis. The procoagulant function of TF is regulated via its conformational change. Thus, multiple steps participate in the elevation of plasma procoagulant activity. Whether cancer cell-derived TF is maximally active in the blood is unclear. Numerous mechanisms other than TF⁺EVs have been proposed as possible causes of CAT. In this review, we focused on a wide variety of regulatory and shedding mechanisms for TF, including the effect of SARS-CoV-2, to provide a broad overview for its role in CAT. Furthermore, we present the current technical issues in studying the relationship between CAT and TF.

Microparticles: biogenesis, characteristics and intervention therapy for cancers in preclinical and clinical research

Extracellular vesicles (EVs), spherical biological vesicles, mainly contain nucleic acids, proteins, lipids and metabolites for biological information transfer between cells. Microparticles (MPs), a subtype of EVs, directly emerge from plasma membranes, and have gained interest in recent years. Specific cell stimulation conditions, such as ultraviolet and X-rays irradiation, can induce the release of MPs, which are endowed with unique antitumor functionalities, either for therapeutic vaccines or as direct antitumor agents. Moreover, the size of MPs (100–1000 nm) and their spherical structures surrounded by a lipid bilayer membrane allow MPs to function as delivery vectors for bioactive antitumor compounds, with favorable phamacokinetic behavior, immunostimulatory activity and biological function, without inherent carrier-specific toxic side effects. In this review, the mechanisms underlying MP biogenesis, factors that influence MP production, properties of MP membranes, size, composition and isolation methods of MPs are discussed. Additionally, the applications and mechanisms of action of MPs, as well as the main hurdles for their applications in cancer management, are introduced.

A Coagulation-Related Gene-Based Prognostic Model for Invasive Ductal Carcinoma

Background: Invasive ductal carcinoma (IDC) is the most common type of metastatic breast cancer. Due to the lack of valuable molecular biomarkers, the diagnosis and prognosis of IDC remain a challenge. A large number of studies have confirmed that coagulation is positively correlated with angiogenesis-related factors in metastatic breast cancer. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to construct a COAGULATION-related genes signature for IDC using the bioinformatics approaches. Methods: The 50 hallmark gene sets were obtained from the molecular signature database (MsigDB) to conduct Gene Set Variation Analysis (GSVA). Gene Set Enrichment Analysis (GSEA) was applied to analyze the enrichment of HALLMARK_COAGULATION. The COAGULATION-related genes were extracted from the gene set. Then, Limma Package was used to identify the differentially expressed COAGULATION-related genes (DECGs) between ductal carcinoma in situ (DCIS) and invasive ductal carcinoma (IDC) samples in GSE26340 data set. A total of 740 IDC samples from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database were divided into a training set and a validation set (7:3). The univariate and multivariate Cox regression analyses were performed to construct a risk signature, which divided the IDC samples into the high- and low-risk groups. The overall survival (OS) curve and receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve were drawn in both training set and validation set. Finally, a nomogram was constructed to predict the 1-, 2-, 3-, 4-, and 5-year survival rates of IDC patients. Quantitative real-time fluorescence PCR (qRT-PCR) was performed to verify the expression levels of the prognostic genes. Results: The "HALLMARK_COAGULATION" was significantly activated in IDC. There was a significant difference in the clinicopathological parameters between the DCIS and IDC patients. Twenty-four DECGs were identified, of which five genes (SERPINA1, CAPN2, HMGCS2, MMP7, and PLAT) were screened to construct the prognostic model. The high-risk group showed a significantly lower survival rate than the low-risk group both in the training set and validation set (p=3.5943e-06 and p=0.014243). The risk score was demonstrated to be an independent predictor of IDC prognosis. A nomogram including risk score, pathological_stage, and pathological_N provided a quantitative method to predict the survival probability of 1-, 2-, 3-, 4-, and 5-year in IDC patients. The results of decision curve analysis (DCA) further demonstrated that the nomogram had a high potential for clinical utility. Conclusion: This study established a COAGULATION-related gene signature and showed its prognostic value in IDC through a comprehensive bioinformatics analysis, which may provide a potential new prognostic mean for patients with IDC.

Factor VIIa Regulates the Level of Cell-Surface Tissue Factor through Separate but Cooperative Mechanisms

Simple Summary

Under normal conditions, blood coagulation is suppressed to prevent thrombosis. However, during inflammatory conditions such as injury or disease conditions, the protein “tissue factor (TF)” is expressed on the surface of the cells and is also released into the bloodstream within cell-derived vesicles called “microvesicles”. TF appears first at the site of trauma which makes TF suitable for determining the extent of damage and instructing cells to proliferate and repair, or if severely damaged, to die. The relationship between cancer and thrombosis was reported in the early part of the 19th century. Cancer cells and particularly those with aggressive tendencies have the ability to produce, and then optimise the amount of TF on the cell, in order to maximise the pro-survival and proliferative properties of this protein. This study has demonstrated some of the mechanisms by which cells control excessive amounts of TF, to levels ideal for tumour survival and growth.

Abstract

Procoagulant activity of tissue factor (TF) in response to injury or inflammation is accompanied with cellular signals which determine the fate of cells. However, to prevent excessive signalling, TF is rapidly dissipated through release into microvesicles, and/or endocytosis. To elucidate the mechanism by which TF signalling may become moderated on the surface of cells, the associations of TF, fVII/fVIIa, PAR2 and caveolin-1 on MDA-MB-231, BxPC-3 and 786-O cells were examined and compared to that in cells lacking either fVII/fVIIa or TF. Furthermore, the localisation of labelled-recombinant TF with cholesterol-rich lipid rafts was explored on the surface of primary human blood dermal endothelial cells (HDBEC). Finally, by disrupting the caveolae on the surface of HDBEC, the outcome on TF-mediated signalling was examined. The association between TF and PAR2 was found to be dependent on the presence of fVIIa. Interestingly, the presence of TF was not pre-requisite for the association between fVII/fVIIa and PAR2 but was significantly enhanced by TF, which was also essential for the proliferative signal. Supplementation of HDBEC with exogenous TF resulted in early release of fVII/fVIIa from caveolae, followed by re-sequestration of TF-fVIIa. Addition of labelled-TF resulted in the accumulation within caveolin-1-containing cholesterol-rich regions and was also accompanied with the increased assimilation of cell-surface fVIIa. Disruption of the caveolae/rafts in HDBEC using MβCD enhanced the TF-mediated cellular signalling. Our data supports a hypothesis that cells respond to the exposure to TF by moderating the signalling activities as well as the procoagulant activity of TF, through incorporation into the caveolae/lipid rafts.

Cancer cell-derived tissue factor-positive extracellular vesicles: biomarkers of thrombosis and survival

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Tissue factor (TF) is released from cancer cells and tumors in the form of extracellular vesicles (EVs). This review summarizes our current knowledge of the mechanisms of release of TF-positive EVs (TF+EVs) from cancer cells and the effect of these TF+EVs on cultured endothelial cells. In addition, we will summarize the contribution of TF+EVs to thrombosis in mice, and the association between plasma EVTF activity and venous thrombosis as well as survival of cancer patients.

RECENT FINDINGS

The release of TF+EVs from cancer cells is regulated by multiple factors, including hypoxia, epithelial-mesenchymal transition, and various intracellular signaling pathways. Cancer cell-derived, TF+EVs confer procoagulant activity to endothelial cells and induce the expression of adhesion proteins and IL-8. In addition, they contribute to thrombosis by directly activating the coagulation system and by generating thrombin that activates platelets in mouse models. Finally, there is an association between EVTF activity and venous thrombosis in pancreatic cancer patients as well as mortality in cancer patients.

SUMMARY

Cancer cell-derived TF+EVs bind to and activate endothelial cells. In addition, they serve as biomarkers of survival of cancer patients and venous thrombosis in pancreatic cancer patients.

Comprehensive landscape of extracellular vesicle-derived RNAs in cancer initiation, progression, metastasis and cancer immunology

Extracellular vesicles (EVs), a class of heterogeneous membrane vesicles, are generally divided into exosomes and microvesicles on basis of their origination from the endosomal membrane or the plasma membrane, respectively. EV-mediated bidirectional communication among various cell types supports cancer cell growth and metastasis. EVs derived from different cell types and status have been shown to have distinct RNA profiles, comprising messenger RNAs and non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs). Recently, ncRNAs have attracted great interests in the field of EV-RNA research, and growing numbers of ncRNAs ranging from microRNAs to long ncRNAs have been investigated to reveal their specific functions and underlying mechanisms in the tumor microenvironment and premetastatic niches. Emerging evidence has indicated that EV-RNAs are essential functional cargoes in modulating hallmarks of cancers and in reciprocal crosstalk within tumor cells and between tumor and stromal cells over short and long distance, thereby regulating the initiation, development and progression of cancers. In this review, we discuss current findings regarding EV biogenesis, release and interaction with target cells as well as EV-RNA sorting, and highlight biological roles and molecular mechanisms of EV-ncRNAs in cancer biology.

Proteomic analysis of extracellular vesicles derived from platelet concentrates treated with Mirasol® identifies biomarkers of platelet storage lesion

In blood banks, platelets are stored until 7 days after a pathogen reduction technology (PRT) treatment, Mirasol® (vitamin B₂ plus UVB light) in the present case. The storage time under these conditions may have an impact on platelets and their releasate leading to potential adverse reactions following transfusion to patients. The aim of this study was to analyze the proteome of extracellular vesicles generated by platelets at different storage days (2 and 7) to gain deeper information on the platelet concentrates state at those moments. EVs were isolated by a centrifugation-based approach and characterized by dynamic light scattering and transmission electron microscopy. Proteomic analysis was by LC-MS/MS and quantification by SWATH. In this way, 151 proteins were found up-regulated at day 7 of storage. This group includes CCL5 and Platelet Factor 4, chemokines with power to attract neutrophils and monocytes, which could generate transfusion adverse reactions. In addition, other glycoproteins and platelet activation markers were also found elevated at day 7. Proteins related to glycolysis and lactate production were found altered with high fold changes, showing a deregulation of platelet metabolism at day 7. The obtained results provide novel information about possible effects of platelet-derived EVs on transfusion adverse reactions. SIGNIFICANCE: We performed the first proteomic analysis of extracellular vesicles derived from platelets upon storage at different time points on blood bank conditions after Mirasol® treatment. We identified a high number of proteins related to platelet activation and platelet storage lesion that could have a role in possible transfusion adverse reactions.

Microvesicles Derived from TGF-β1 Stimulated Hepatic Stellate Cells Aggravate Hepatocellular Injury

Hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) are liver-specific cells playing critical roles in liver physiological and pathophysiological processes. Transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1) is an inflammatory cytokine secreted by both hepatocytes and HSCs. We have previously shown that microvesicles (MVs) derived from quiescent HSCs protect hepatocyte functions. In this study, we investigated the effects of MVs released from TGF-β1-stimulated HSCs (HSC-MVs) on xenobiotic-injured hepatocytes. Two hepatocyte cell lines (BRL-3A and HL-7702) were treated with N-acetyl-p-aminophenol or H₂O₂ to build the injury models. Different concentrations of HSC-MVs were used to coculture with injured hepatocytes. MTT, Hochest33258 staining, and flow cytometry were used to determine their effects on the viability and apoptosis of hepatocytes. Liver injury indicators, alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartate amino transferase (AST), were assessed by enzyme-linked immune sorbent assay kits. The phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) activator (740Y-P) and extracelluar signal regulated kinase (Erk)1/2 activator (platelet-derived growth factor-BB) were used for pathway analysis. The expression levels of p-PI3K/PI3K, p-Akt/Akt, and activated caspase-3 were measured by western blot. Results showed that (i) HSC-MVs dose dependently impaired the viability of hepatocytes in both injury models, (ii) moreover, HSC-MVs dose dependently increased the apoptosis in those cell models, (iii) HSC-MVs also elevated the levels of ALT and AST in the coculture media, and (iv) these effects were accompanied by a decrease in p-PI3K/PI3K and p-Akt/Akt, which could be partially abolished by 740Y-P. Meanwhile, the proapoptotic effect of HSC-MVs was associated with p-Erk1/2/Erk1/2 downregulation and activated caspase-3 upregulation, and could be inhibited by Erk1/2 activation. Our findings demonstrate that HSC-MVs are involved in inflammatory hepatocytes injury probably through the PI3K/Akt, Erk1/2, and caspase-3 pathways.

Thrombin Generation and Cancer: Contributors and Consequences

The high occurrence of cancer-associated thrombosis is associated with elevated thrombin generation. Tumour cells increase the potential for thrombin generation both directly, through the expression and release of procoagulant factors, and indirectly, through signals that activate other cell types (including platelets, leukocytes and erythrocytes). Furthermore, cancer treatments can worsen these effects. Coagulation factors, including tissue factor, and inhibitors of coagulation are altered and extracellular vesicles (EVs), which can promote and support thrombin generation, are released by tumour and other cells. Some phosphatidylserine-expressing platelet subsets and platelet-derived EVs provide the surface required for the assembly of coagulation factors essential for thrombin generation in vivo. This review will explore the causes of increased thrombin production in cancer, and the availability and utility of tests and biomarkers. Increased thrombin production not only increases blood coagulation, but also promotes tumour growth and metastasis and as a consequence, thrombin and its contributors present opportunities for treatment of cancer-associated thrombosis and cancer itself.