Iturin and surfactin from the endophyte Bacillus amyloliquefaciens strain RKEA3 exhibits antagonism against Staphylococcus aureus

Lipopeptide iturin C3 from endophytic Bacillus sp. effectively inhibits biofilm formation and prevents the adhesion of topical and food-borne pathogens in vitro and on biomedical devices

Iturin, a structurally cyclic heptapeptides with a number of homologous derivatives has broad-spectrum antimicrobial and antibiofilm properties. The present study elucidates the structure and antimicrobial efficacy of iturin C3 biosurfactant (BS) produced by the endophytic bacterium Bacillus sp. LLB-04. Bacillus sp. LLB-04 was isolated from the leaves of hemiparasite Scurrula parasitica L. during the winter season. The biosurfactant was produced in a static batch culture of 120 h using Nutrient Broth (NB) medium and was extracted by a series of solvent systems. The BS was purified by solvent fractionation and preparative High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) method, and then it was structurally characterized through various analytical methods. Its antimicrobial and antibiofilm activities were tested against 0, to 18 h old topical and food-borne pathogens. Furthermore, the cellular aggregation and bacterial cell adhesion on polystyrene and urethral catheters were checked at the Biofilm inhibitory concentration (BIC). The cell line toxicity of BS (0-1.568 mg/ml) was tested against the human embryonic lung tissue L-132 and human alveolar epithelial cancer cell line, and the in silico mode of action was studied using standard methods. From the spectroscopic studies of 96 h culture harvested BS revealed that Bacillus sp. LLB-04 (GenBank Accession No.: MF037706) produced the BS as iturin C3. The BS had broad-spectrum antimicrobial with minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values ranging from 0.1 to 1.6 mg/ml and an average biofilm inhibition concentration (BIC) of 0.8-1.6 mg/ml in 18 h old cells where biofilm formation was inhibited up to 46.4 times at 1.6 mg/ml concentration. It could also destabilize 40-48 h old preformed biofilm and had a synergistic response with streptomycin (Bacillus subtilis MTCC 411, Escherichia coli MTCC 730), ciprofloxacin (B. subtilis MTCC 411, E. coli MTCC 730), and vancomycin (Staphylococcus epidermidis MTCC 3086, B. subtilis MTCC 411). It had antiproliferative activity (0.1-0.8 mg/ml) on cancer cell lines. In-silico protein-ligand interactions predicted that it could interact with different membrane proteins of topical and food-borne pathogens. Thus, the study revealed for the first time that the endophytic Bacillus sp. could be exploited for large-scale production of iturin C3 that could be used in combating biofilm formation and cellular adhesion of topical and food-borne pathogens.

Bio-Based Surfactants and Biosurfactants: An Overview and Main Characteristics

Natural surfactants are surface-active molecules synthesized from renewable resources (i.e., plants, animals, or microorganisms) and possess properties comparable to conventional surfactants, making them an environmentally friendly potential alternative to petrochemical surfactants. Additionally, they exhibit biological properties such as anti-microbial properties, biodegradability, and less toxicity, allowing their use in everyday products with minimal risk to human health and the environment. Based on their mode of production, natural surfactants can be classified into first-generation or bio-based surfactants and second-generation or biosurfactants, although their definition may vary depending on the author in the literature. This review offers an extensive classification of bio-based surfactants and biosurfactants, focusing on their composition, natural sources, production methods, and potential applications across various industries. Furthermore, the main challenges and future perspectives are discussed.

Two Strains of Endophytic Bacillus velezensis Carrying Antibiotic-Biosynthetic Genes Show Antibacterial and Antibiofilm Activities Against Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is considered a priority pathogen causing high mortality that requires effective control measures. This study aimed to detect the presence of antibiotic-biosynthetic genes and to evaluate the anti-MRSA activity of two strains of endophytic Bacillus velezensis isolated from Archidendron pauciflorum. PCR-based screening showed that B. velezensis strains, such as DJ4 and DJ9 possessed six antibiotic-biosynthetic genes, namely MlnA , DhbE , BacD , DfnD, SrfA, and BaeR. According to the preliminary test conducted using disc-diffusion assay, metabolite extracts from these strains have anti-MRSA activity with clear zone diameters of 13.00 ± 0.82 mm, and 17.33 ± 0.47 mm, respectively. Extract from DJ9 strain was more active to MRSA, with minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) values of 62.50 µg/mL and 250 µg/mL, respectively. Furthermore, a bactericidal effect was observed, as evidenced by MBC/MIC ratio of four. Both DJ9 and DJ4 extracts showed a dose-dependent inhibitory effect on MRSA biofilm formation. Furthermore, a maximum inhibition percentage of 60.12 ± 2.5% was shown by DJ9 extract in two-fold MIC. The corresponding extract disrupted MRSA mature biofilms most effectively at 55.74 ± 1.4%. In conclusion, crude extract, particularly the DJ9 strain had significant potential in inhibiting MRSA cell growth, MRSA biofilm formation, and disrupting MRSA mature biofilm in vitro.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12088-024-01262-1.

Isolation of a surfactin-producing strain of Bacillus subtilis and evaluation of the probiotic potential and antioxidant activity of surfactin from fermented soybean meal

BACKGROUND

Surfactin, usually produced by microbial metabolism, has many advantages including low toxicity, high biodegradability, and stability at extreme pH levels and temperatures, making it suitable for industry. However, its commercial production has not yet been achieved.

RESULTS

A strain with a strong surfactin-producing ability was isolated and identified as Bacillus subtilis SOPC5, based on the appearance of colonies, microscopic observation, and 16S rDNA sequencing. The isolate exhibited significant tolerance to acid, bile, gastric, and intestinal juices, and was sufficiently susceptible to antibiotics. Bacillus subtilis SOPC5 showed high levels of auto-aggregation and surface hydrophobicity, and a strong capacity to secrete protease, amylase, and cellulase. The strain also exhibited antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus 10 306 with a antibacterial circle diameter of 18.0 ± 1.1 mm. The maximal yield of surfactin (1.32 mg mL-1) was obtained by fermenting soybean meal (SBM) using the isolate under the following conditions: SBM 86 g L-1, inoculation 1.5 × 107 CFU mL-1, FeSO4 1.2 mg L-1, MnSO4 2.6 mg L-1, MgSO4 0.5 mg mL-1, L-Glu 4 mg L-1, temperature 33 °C, duration 120 h, and shaking at 210 rpm. The purity of surfactin was 97.42% as measured by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The half inhibitory concentration (IC50) values for surfactin to scavenge 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and 2,2-azino-bis-(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) radical cation (ABTS·+) were 1.275 ± 0.11 and 0.73 ± 0.08 mg mL-1, respectively.

CONCLUSION

This study provides a scientific basis for the application of B. subtilis SOPC5 (as a potential probiotic) and the preparation of its metabolic product (surfactin). © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.

Insights into the antifungal mechanism of Bacillus subtilis cyclic lipopeptide iturin A mediated by potassium ion channel

Fungal infections pose severe and potentially lethal threats to plant, animal, and human health. Ergosterol has served as the primary target for developing antifungal medications. However, many antifungal drugs remain highly toxic to humans due to similarity in cell membrane composition between fungal and animal cells. Iturin A, lipopeptide produced by Bacillus subtilis, efficiently inhibit various fungi, but demonstrated safety in oral administration, indicating the existence of targets different from ergosterol. To pinpoint the exact antifungal target of iturin A, we used homologous recombination to knock out and overexpress erg3, a key gene in ergosterol synthesis. Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Aspergillus carbonarius were transformed using the LiAc/SS-DNNPEG and Agrobacterium-mediated transformation (AMT), respectively. Surprisingly, increasing ergosterol content did not augment antifungal activity. Furthermore, iturin A's antifungal activity against S. cerevisiae was reduced while it pre-incubation with voltage-gated potassium (Kv) channel inhibitor, indicating that Kv activation was responsible for cell death. Iturin A was found to activate the Kv protein, stimulating K+ efflux from cell. In vitro tests confirmed interaction between iturin A and Kv protein. This study highlights Kv as one of the precise targets of iturin A in its antifungal activity, offering a novel target for the development of antifungal medications.

Solubilization and enhanced degradation of benzene phenolic derivatives-Bisphenol A/Triclosan using a biosurfactant producing white rot fungus Hypocrea lixii S5 with plant growth promoting traits

Introduction

Endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) as benzene phenolic derivatives being hydrophobic partition to organic matter in sludge/soil sediments and show slow degradation rate owing to poor bioavailability to microbes.

Methods

In the present study, the potential of a versatile white rot fungal isolate S5 identified as Hypocrea lixii was monitored to degrade bisphenol A (BPA)/triclosan (TCS) under shake flask conditions with concomitant production of lipopeptide biosurfactant (BS) and plant growth promotion.

Results

Sufficient growth of WRF for 5 days before supplementation of 50 ppm EDC (BPA/TCS) in set B showed an increase in degradation rates by 23% and 29% with corresponding increase in secretion of lignin-modifying enzymes compared to set A wherein almost 84% and 97% inhibition in fungal growth was observed when BPA/TCS were added at time of fungal inoculation. Further in set B, EDC concentration stimulated expression of laccase and lignin peroxidase (Lip) with 24.44 U/L of laccase and 281.69 U/L of Lip in 100 ppm BPA and 344 U/L Lip in 50 ppm TCS supplemented medium compared to their respective controls (without EDC). Biodegradation was also found to be correlated with lowering of surface tension from 57.02 mN/m (uninoculated control) to 44.16 mN/m in case of BPA and 38.49 mN/m in TCS, indicative of biosurfactant (BS) production. FTIR, GC-MS, and LC-ESI/MSMS confirmed the presence of surfactin lipopeptide isoforms. The WRF also displayed positive plant growth promoting traits as production of ammonia, indole acetic acid, siderophores, Zn solubilization, and 1-1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate (ACC) deaminase activity, reflecting its soil restoration ability.

Discussion

The combined traits of biosurfactant production, EDC degradation and plant growth promotion displayed by WRF will help in emulsifying the hydrophobic pollutants favoring their fast degradation along with restoration of contaminated soil in natural conditions.

Total synthesis of antifungal lipopeptide iturin A analogues and evaluation of their bioactivity against F. graminearum

The pursuit of novel antifungal agents is imperative to tackle the threat of antifungal resistance, which poses major risks to both human health and to food security. Iturin A is a cyclic lipopeptide, produced by Bacillus sp., with pronounced antifungal properties against several pathogens. Its challenging synthesis, mainly due to the laborious synthesis of the β-amino fatty acid present in its structure, has hindered the study of its mode of action and the development of more potent analogues. In this work, a facile synthesis of bioactive iturin A analogues containing an alkylated cysteine residue is presented. Two analogues with opposite configurations of the alkylated cysteine residue were synthesized, to evaluate the role of the stereochemistry of the newly introduced amino acid on the bioactivity. Antifungal assays, conducted against F. graminearum, showed that the novel analogues are bioactive and can be used as a synthetic model for the design of new analogues and in structure-activity relationship studies. The assays also highlight the importance of the β-amino acid in the natural structure and the role of the stereochemistry of the amino fatty acid, as the analogue with the D configuration showed stronger antifungal properties than the one with the L configuration.

Endophytic bacteria Klebsiella spp. and Bacillus spp. from Alternanthera philoxeroides in Madiwala Lake exhibit additive plant growth-promoting and biocontrol activities

BACKGROUND

The worldwide increase in human population and environmental damage has put immense pressure on the overall global crop production making it inadequate to feed the entire population. Therefore, the need for sustainable and environment-friendly practices to enhance agricultural productivity is a pressing priority. Endophytic bacteria with plant growth-promoting ability and biocontrol activity can strongly enhance plant growth under changing environmental biotic and abiotic conditions. Herein, we isolated halotolerant endophytic bacteria from an aquatic plant, Alternanthera philoxeroides, from the polluted waters of Madiwala Lake in Bangalore and studied their plant growth promotion (PGP) and biocontrol ability for use as bioinoculant.

RESULTS

The isolated bacterial endophytes were screened for salt tolerance ranging from 5 to 15% NaCl concentration. Klebsiella pneumoniae showed halotolerant up to 10% NaCl and Bacillus amyloliquefaciens and Bacillus subtilis showed up to 15%. All three strains demonstrated good PGP abilities such as aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC) deaminase activity, phosphate solubilization, ammonia production, and nitrogen fixation. In addition, K. pneumoniae also exhibited high indoleacetic acid (IAA) production (195.66 ± 2.51 µg/ml) and potassium solubilization (2.13 ± 0.07 ppm). B. amyloliquefaciens and B. subtilis showed good extracellular enzyme production against cellulase, lipase, protease, and amylase. Both the isolates showed a broad spectrum of antimicrobial activity against the tested organisms. The optimization of IAA production by K. pneumoniae was done by the response surface methodology (RSM) tool. Characterization of IAA produced by the isolate was done by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GCMS) analysis. The enhanced plant growth-promoting ability of K. pneumoniae was also demonstrated using various growth parameters in a pot trial experiment using the seeds of Vigna unguiculata.

CONCLUSION

The isolated bacterial endophytes reported in this study can be utilized as PGP promotion and biocontrol agents in agricultural applications, to enhance crop yield under salinity stress. The isolate K. pneumoniae may be used as a biofertilizer in sustainable agriculture and more work can be done to optimize the best formulations for its application as a microbial inoculant for crops.

Iturin: A Promising Cyclic Lipopeptide with Diverse Applications

This comprehensive review examines iturin, a cyclic lipopeptide originating from Bacillus subtilis and related bacteria. These compounds are structurally diverse and possess potent inhibitory effects against plant disease-causing bacteria and fungi. Notably, Iturin A exhibits strong antifungal properties and low toxicity, making it valuable for bio-pesticides and mycosis treatment. Emerging research reveals additional capabilities, including anticancer and hemolytic features. Iturin finds applications across industries. In food, iturin as a biosurfactant serves beyond surface tension reduction, enhancing emulsions and texture. Biosurfactants are significant in soil remediation, agriculture, wound healing, and sustainability. They also show promise in Microbial Enhanced Oil Recovery (MEOR) in the petroleum industry. The pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries recognize iturin's diverse properties, such as antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, anticancer, and anti-obesity effects. Cosmetic applications span emulsification, anti-wrinkle, and antibacterial use. Understanding iturin's structure, synthesis, and applications gains importance as biosurfactant and lipopeptide research advances. This review focuses on emphasizing iturin's structural characteristics, production methods, biological effects, and applications across industries. It probes iturin's antibacterial, antifungal potential, antiviral efficacy, and cancer treatment capabilities. It explores diverse applications in food, petroleum, pharmaceuticals, and cosmetics, considering recent developments, challenges, and prospects.

Harnessing the action mechanisms of microbial endophytes for enhancing plant performance and stress tolerance: current understanding and future perspectives

Microbial endophytes are microorganisms that reside within plant tissues without causing any harm to their hosts. These microorganisms have been found to confer a range of benefits to plants, including increased growth and stress tolerance. In this review, we summarize the recent advances in our understanding of the mechanisms by which microbial endophytes confer abiotic and biotic stress tolerance to their host plants. Specifically, we focus on the roles of endophytes in enhancing nutrient uptake, modulating plant hormones, producing secondary metabolites, and activating plant defence responses. We also discuss the challenges associated with developing microbial endophyte-based products for commercial use, including product refinement, toxicology analysis, and prototype formulation. Despite these challenges, there is growing interest in the potential applications of microbial endophytes in agriculture and environmental remediation. With further research and development, microbial endophyte-based products have the potential to play a significant role in sustainable agriculture and environmental management.

Antifungal mechanisms of the antagonistic bacterium Bacillus mojavensis UTF-33 and its potential as a new biopesticide

Biological control has gradually become the dominant means of controlling fungal disease over recent years. In this study, an endophytic strain of UTF-33 was isolated from acid mold (Rumex acetosa L.) leaves. Based on 16S rDNA gene sequence comparison, and biochemical and physiological characteristics, this strain was formally identified as Bacillus mojavensis. Bacillus mojavensis UTF-33 was sensitive to most of the antibiotics tested except neomycin. Moreover, the filtrate fermentation solution of Bacillus mojavensis UTF-33 had a significant inhibitory effect on the growth of rice blast and was used in field evaluation tests, which reduced the infestation of rice blast effectively. Rice treated with filtrate fermentation broth exhibited multiple defense mechanisms in response, including the enhanced expression of disease process-related genes and transcription factor genes, and significantly upregulated the gene expression of titin, salicylic acid pathway-related genes, and H₂O₂ accumulation, in plants; this may directly or indirectly act as an antagonist to pathogenic infestation. Further analysis revealed that the n-butanol crude extract of Bacillus mojavensis UTF-33 could retard or even inhibit conidial germination and prevent the formation of adherent cells both in vitro and in vivo. In addition, the amplification of functional genes for biocontrol using specific primers showed that Bacillus mojavensis UTF-33 expresses genes that can direct the synthesis of bioA, bmyB, fenB, ituD, srfAA and other substances; this information can help us to determine the extraction direction and purification method for inhibitory substances at a later stage. In conclusion, this is the first study to identify Bacillus mojavensis as a potential agent for the control of rice diseases; this strain, and its bioactive substances, have the potential to be developed as biopesticides.

LC-MS and Transcriptome Analysis of Lipopeptide Biosynthesis by Bacillus velezensis CMT-6 Responding to Dissolved Oxygen

Dissolved oxygen (DO) is an key factor for lipopeptide fermentation. To better understand the link between oxygen supply and lipopeptide productivity in Bacillus velezensis CMT-6, the mechanism of DO on the synthesis of antimicrobial lipopeptides by Bacillus velezensis CMT-6 was examined. The production of surfactin and iturin of CMT-6 was detected by liquid chromatography–mass spectrometer (LC-MS) under different DO conditions and transcriptome analysis was performed. At 100 and 200 rpm, the lipopeptides productions were 2753.62 mg/L and 3452.90 mg/L, respectively. There was no significant change in the yield of iturin but that of surfactin increased by 64.14%. Transcriptome analysis revealed that the enriched differential genes were concentrated in the GO term of oxidation–reduction process. The marked enrichment of the lipopeptides synthesis pathway, including microbial metabolism in diverse environments and carbon metabolism in the two-component system, were observed. More importantly, the expression levels of the four surfactin synthetase genes increased at higher DO, however, the iturin synthetase gene expression did not. Furthermore, modular surfactin synthetase was overexpressed (between 9- and 49-fold) at 200 rpm but not at 100 rpm, which is suggestive of efficient surfactin assembly resulting in surfactin overproduction. This study provides a theoretical basis for constructing engineering strains with high lipopeptide production to adapt to different DO.