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Tam S, Wear D, Morrone CD, Yu WH. The complexity of extracellular vesicles: Bridging the gap between cellular communication and neuropathology. J Neurochem 2024. [PMID: 38650384 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.16108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2024] [Revised: 03/12/2024] [Accepted: 03/31/2024] [Indexed: 04/25/2024]
Abstract
Brain-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) serve a prominent role in maintaining homeostasis and contributing to pathology in health and disease. This review establishes a crucial link between physiological processes leading to EV biogenesis and their impacts on disease. EVs are involved in the clearance and transport of proteins and nucleic acids, responding to changes in cellular processes associated with neurodegeneration, including autophagic disruption, organellar dysfunction, aging, and other cell stresses. In neurodegenerative disorders (e.g., Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, etc.), EVs contribute to the spread of pathological proteins like amyloid β, tau, ɑ-synuclein, prions, and TDP-43, exacerbating neurodegeneration and accelerating disease progression. Despite evidence for both neuropathological and neuroprotective effects of EVs, the mechanistic switch between their physiological and pathological functions remains elusive, warranting further research into their involvement in neurodegenerative disease. Moreover, owing to their innate ability to traverse the blood-brain barrier and their ubiquitous nature, EVs emerge as promising candidates for novel diagnostic and therapeutic strategies. The review uniquely positions itself at the intersection of EV cell biology, neurophysiology, and neuropathology, offering insights into the diverse biological roles of EVs in health and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie Tam
- Brain Health Imaging Centre, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Darcy Wear
- Brain Health Imaging Centre, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Christopher D Morrone
- Brain Health Imaging Centre, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Wai Haung Yu
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
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2
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Muacevic A, Adler JR, Nigh G, McCullough PA. A Potential Role of the Spike Protein in Neurodegenerative Diseases: A Narrative Review. Cureus 2023; 15:e34872. [PMID: 36788995 PMCID: PMC9922164 DOI: 10.7759/cureus.34872] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/07/2023] [Indexed: 02/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Human prion protein and prion-like protein misfolding are widely recognized as playing a causal role in many neurodegenerative diseases. Based on in vitro and in vivo experimental evidence relating to prion and prion-like disease, we extrapolate from the compelling evidence that the spike glycoprotein of SARS-CoV-2 contains extended amino acid sequences characteristic of a prion-like protein to infer its potential to cause neurodegenerative disease. We propose that vaccine-induced spike protein synthesis can facilitate the accumulation of toxic prion-like fibrils in neurons. We outline various pathways through which these proteins could be expected to distribute throughout the body. We review both cellular pathologies and the expression of disease that could become more frequent in those who have undergone mRNA vaccination. Specifically, we describe the spike protein's contributions, via its prion-like properties, to neuroinflammation and neurodegenerative diseases; to clotting disorders within the vasculature; to further disease risk due to suppressed prion protein regulation in the context of widely prevalent insulin resistance; and to other health complications. We explain why these prion-like characteristics are more relevant to vaccine-related mRNA-induced spike proteins than natural infection with SARS-CoV-2. We note with an optimism an apparent loss of prion-like properties among the current Omicron variants. We acknowledge that the chain of pathological events described throughout this paper is only hypothetical and not yet verified. We also acknowledge that the evidence we usher in, while grounded in the research literature, is currently largely circumstantial, not direct. Finally, we describe the implications of our findings for the general public, and we briefly discuss public health recommendations we feel need urgent consideration. An earlier version of this article was previously posted to the Authorea preprint server on August 16, 2022.
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3
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Celauro L, Zattoni M, Legname G. Prion receptors, prion internalization, intra- and inter-cellular transport. PROGRESS IN MOLECULAR BIOLOGY AND TRANSLATIONAL SCIENCE 2023; 196:15-41. [PMID: 36813357 DOI: 10.1016/bs.pmbts.2022.06.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Luigi Celauro
- Laboratory of Prion Biology, Department of Neuroscience, Scuola Internazionale Superiore di Studi Avanzati (SISSA), Trieste, Italy
| | - Marco Zattoni
- Laboratory of Prion Biology, Department of Neuroscience, Scuola Internazionale Superiore di Studi Avanzati (SISSA), Trieste, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Legname
- Laboratory of Prion Biology, Department of Neuroscience, Scuola Internazionale Superiore di Studi Avanzati (SISSA), Trieste, Italy.
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4
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Kaur S, Verma H, Dhiman M, Tell G, Gigli GL, Janes F, Mantha AK. Brain Exosomes: Friend or Foe in Alzheimer's Disease? Mol Neurobiol 2021; 58:6610-6624. [PMID: 34595669 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-021-02547-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2021] [Accepted: 08/23/2021] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common neurodegenerative disease. It is known to be a multifactorial disease and several causes are associated with its occurrence as well as progression. However, the accumulation of amyloid beta (Aβ) is widely considered its major pathogenic hallmark. Additionally, neurofibrillary tangles (NFT), mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress, and aging (cellular senescence) are considered as additional hits affecting the disease pathology. Several studies are now suggesting important role of inflammation in AD, which shifts our thought towards the brain's resident immune cells, microglia, and astrocytes; how they interact with neurons; and how these interactions are affected by intra and extracellular stressful factors. These interactions can be modulated by different mechanisms and pathways, in which exosomes could play an important role. Exosomes are multivesicular bodies secreted by nearly all types of cells. The exosomes secreted by glial cells or neurons affect the interactions and thus the physiology of these cells by transmitting miRNAs, proteins, and lipids. Exosomes can serve as a friend or foe to the neuron function, depending upon the carried signals. Exosomes, from the healthy microenvironment, may assist neuron function and health, whereas, from the stressed microenvironment, they carry oxidative and inflammatory signals to the neurons and thus prove detrimental to the neuronal function. Furthermore, exosomes can cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB), and from the blood plasma they can enter the brain cells and activate microglia and astrocytes. Exosomes can transport Aβ or Tau, cytokines, miRNAs between the cells, and alter the physiology of recipient cells. They can also assist in Aβ clearance and regulation of synaptic activity. The exosomes derived from different cells play different roles, and this field is still in its infancy stage. This review advocates exosomes' role as a friend or foe in neurodegenerative diseases, especially in the case of Alzheimer's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sharanjot Kaur
- Department of Microbiology, School of Biological Sciences , Central University of Punjab, Bathinda, Punjab, India
| | - Harkomal Verma
- Department of Zoology, School of Biological Sciences, Central University of Punjab, Village Ghudda151 401, Punjab, Bathinda, India
| | - Monisha Dhiman
- Department of Microbiology, School of Biological Sciences , Central University of Punjab, Bathinda, Punjab, India
| | - Gianluca Tell
- Department of Medicine, University of Udine, Udine, Italy
| | - Gian Luigi Gigli
- Department of Medicine, University of Udine, Udine, Italy
- Clinical Neurology, Udine University Hospital, Udine, Italy
| | | | - Anil K Mantha
- Department of Zoology, School of Biological Sciences, Central University of Punjab, Village Ghudda151 401, Punjab, Bathinda, India.
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5
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Huda MN, Nafiujjaman M, Deaguero IG, Okonkwo J, Hill ML, Kim T, Nurunnabi M. Potential Use of Exosomes as Diagnostic Biomarkers and in Targeted Drug Delivery: Progress in Clinical and Preclinical Applications. ACS Biomater Sci Eng 2021; 7:2106-2149. [PMID: 33988964 PMCID: PMC8147457 DOI: 10.1021/acsbiomaterials.1c00217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 33.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2021] [Accepted: 05/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Exosomes are cell-derived vesicles containing heterogeneous active biomolecules such as proteins, lipids, mRNAs, receptors, immune regulatory molecules, and nucleic acids. They typically range in size from 30 to 150 nm in diameter. An exosome's surfaces can be bioengineered with antibodies, fluorescent dye, peptides, and tailored for small molecule and large active biologics. Exosomes have enormous potential as a drug delivery vehicle due to enhanced biocompatibility, excellent payload capability, and reduced immunogenicity compared to alternative polymeric-based carriers. Because of active targeting and specificity, exosomes are capable of delivering their cargo to exosome-recipient cells. Additionally, exosomes can potentially act as early stage disease diagnostic tools as the exosome carries various protein biomarkers associated with a specific disease. In this review, we summarize recent progress on exosome composition, biological characterization, and isolation techniques. Finally, we outline the exosome's clinical applications and preclinical advancement to provide an outlook on the importance of exosomes for use in targeted drug delivery, biomarker study, and vaccine development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Md Nurul Huda
- Environmental Science & Engineering, University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, TX 79968
| | - Md Nafiujjaman
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Institute for Quantitative Health Science and Engineering, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824
| | - Isaac G Deaguero
- Biomedical Engineering, University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, TX 79968
| | - Jude Okonkwo
- John A Paulson School of Engineering, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138
| | - Meghan L. Hill
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Institute for Quantitative Health Science and Engineering, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824
| | - Taeho Kim
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Institute for Quantitative Health Science and Engineering, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824
| | - Md Nurunnabi
- Environmental Science & Engineering, University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, TX 79968
- Biomedical Engineering, University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, TX 79968
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, TX 79902
- Border Biomedical Research Center, University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, TX 79968
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6
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Hwang DW, Suh M, Lee DS. Exosome Imaging. Mol Imaging 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-816386-3.00054-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
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7
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A New Take on Prion Protein Dynamics in Cellular Trafficking. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21207763. [PMID: 33092231 PMCID: PMC7589859 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21207763] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2020] [Revised: 10/14/2020] [Accepted: 10/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The mobility of cellular prion protein (PrPC) in specific cell membrane domains and among distinct cell compartments dictates its molecular interactions and directs its cell function. PrPC works in concert with several partners to organize signaling platforms implicated in various cellular processes. The scaffold property of PrPC is able to gather a molecular repertoire to create heterogeneous membrane domains that favor endocytic events. Dynamic trafficking of PrPC through multiple pathways, in a well-orchestrated mechanism of intra and extracellular vesicular transport, defines its functional plasticity, and also assists the conversion and spreading of its infectious isoform associated with neurodegenerative diseases. In this review, we highlight how PrPC traffics across intra- and extracellular compartments and the consequences of this dynamic transport in governing cell functions and contributing to prion disease pathogenesis.
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8
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Cell-to-Cell Communication in Learning and Memory: From Neuro- and Glio-Transmission to Information Exchange Mediated by Extracellular Vesicles. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 21:ijms21010266. [PMID: 31906013 PMCID: PMC6982255 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21010266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2019] [Revised: 12/14/2019] [Accepted: 12/28/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Most aspects of nervous system development and function rely on the continuous crosstalk between neurons and the variegated universe of non-neuronal cells surrounding them. The most extraordinary property of this cellular community is its ability to undergo adaptive modifications in response to environmental cues originating from inside or outside the body. Such ability, known as neuronal plasticity, allows long-lasting modifications of the strength, composition and efficacy of the connections between neurons, which constitutes the biochemical base for learning and memory. Nerve cells communicate with each other through both wiring (synaptic) and volume transmission of signals. It is by now clear that glial cells, and in particular astrocytes, also play critical roles in both modes by releasing different kinds of molecules (e.g., D-serine secreted by astrocytes). On the other hand, neurons produce factors that can regulate the activity of glial cells, including their ability to release regulatory molecules. In the last fifteen years it has been demonstrated that both neurons and glial cells release extracellular vesicles (EVs) of different kinds, both in physiologic and pathological conditions. Here we discuss the possible involvement of EVs in the events underlying learning and memory, in both physiologic and pathological conditions.
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Iliescu FS, Vrtačnik D, Neuzil P, Iliescu C. Microfluidic Technology for Clinical Applications of Exosomes. MICROMACHINES 2019; 10:mi10060392. [PMID: 31212754 PMCID: PMC6631586 DOI: 10.3390/mi10060392] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2019] [Revised: 06/06/2019] [Accepted: 06/07/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Exosomes, a type of nanovesicle, are distinct cellular entities specifically capable of carrying various cargos between cells. It has been hypothesized that exosomes, as an enriched source of biomolecules, may serve as biomarkers for various diseases. This review introduces general aspects of exosomes, presents the challenges in exosome research, discusses the potential of exosomes as biomarkers, and describes the contribution of microfluidic technology to enable their isolation and analysis for diagnostic and disease monitoring. Additionally, clinical applications of exosomes for diagnostic purposes are also summarized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Florina S Iliescu
- School of Applied Science, Republic Polytechnic Singapore, Singapore 738964, Singapore.
| | - Danilo Vrtačnik
- Laboratory of Microsensor Structures and Electronics, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, University of Ljubljana, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia.
| | - Pavel Neuzil
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Micro/Nano Systems for Aerospace, School of Mechanical Engineering, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an 710072, China.
- Central European Institute of Technology, Brno University of Technology, Brno 613 00, Czech Republic.
- Department of Microelectronics, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Brno University of Technology, Technická 3058/10, 61600 Brno, Czech Republic.
| | - Ciprian Iliescu
- Biomedical Institute for Global Health Research and Technology (BIGHEART), National University of Singapore, Singapore 117599, Singapore.
- Academy of Romanian Scientists, Bucharest 050094, Romania.
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10
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Nowakowski M, Czapla-Masztafiak J, Zhukov I, Zhukova L, Kozak M, Kwiatek WM. Electronic properties of a PrP C-Cu(ii) complex as a marker of 5-fold Cu(ii) coordination. Metallomics 2019; 11:632-642. [PMID: 30756103 DOI: 10.1039/c8mt00339d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Human prion protein is a subject of extensive study, related in particular to the molecular basis of neurodegenerative disease development and prevention. This protein has two main domains: the membrane C-terminal, structured domain as well as the unstructured N-terminal domain. While PrPC (23-231) has up to eight Cu(ii) binding sites in the N-terminal domain, it includes a characteristic, conservative octarepeat region PHGGGWGQ, which was studied by means of X-ray absorption near edge spectroscopy. The measurements were conducted at the SuperXAS beamline (SLS, PSI, Villigen). For the initial 1 : 1 protein-to-Cu(ii) ratio, the two main Cu(ii) binding modes were identified using linear combination fitting and ab initio FEFF calculations for X-ray spectra. Their electronic structures indicated that Cu(ii) coordinated by strong π-donors could effectively suppress the pre-edge structure due to the filling of empty Cu(ii) d-states. The suppression was correlated with the charge transfer effect and filling of the virtual electronic Cu(ii) states. What is more, we showed that the 1s → 4p + LMCT (Ligand-to-Metal-Charge-Transfer) multielectron transition relation with the main edge transition could be used as a marker for preliminary comparison of an unknown organic compound to a reference. The presented results permitted a possible explanation of the mechanism of choosing the preferred Cu(ii) modes in PrPC-Cu(ii) coordination processes and of the complex stability from the electronic point of view.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michał Nowakowski
- Institute of Nuclear Physics, Polish Academy of Sciences, PL-31-342 Krakow, Poland.
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11
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Blancas-Mejia LM, Misra P, Dick CJ, Cooper SA, Redhage KR, Bergman MR, Jordan TL, Maar K, Ramirez-Alvarado M. Immunoglobulin light chain amyloid aggregation. Chem Commun (Camb) 2018; 54:10664-10674. [PMID: 30087961 DOI: 10.1039/c8cc04396e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Light chain (AL) amyloidosis is a devastating, complex, and incurable protein misfolding disease. It is characterized by an abnormal proliferation of plasma cells (fully differentiated B cells) producing an excess of monoclonal immunoglobulin light chains that are secreted into circulation, where the light chains misfold, aggregate as amyloid fibrils in target organs, and cause organ dysfunction, organ failure, and death. In this article, we will review the factors that contribute to AL amyloidosis complexity, the findings by our laboratory from the last 16 years and the work from other laboratories on understanding the structural, kinetics, and thermodynamic contributions that drive immunoglobulin light chain-associated amyloidosis. We will discuss the role of cofactors and the mechanism of cellular damage. Last, we will review our recent findings on the high resolution structure of AL amyloid fibrils. AL amyloidosis is the best example of protein sequence diversity in misfolding diseases, as each patient has a unique combination of germline donor sequences and multiple amino acid mutations in the protein that forms the amyloid fibril.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luis M Blancas-Mejia
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA.
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12
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Prion-Like Propagation of Post-Translationally Modified Tau in Alzheimer’s Disease: A Hypothesis. J Mol Neurosci 2018; 65:480-490. [DOI: 10.1007/s12031-018-1111-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2018] [Accepted: 06/20/2018] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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13
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Abdulrahman BA, Abdelaziz DH, Schatzl HM. Autophagy regulates exosomal release of prions in neuronal cells. J Biol Chem 2018; 293:8956-8968. [PMID: 29700113 PMCID: PMC5995502 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.ra117.000713] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2017] [Revised: 04/19/2018] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Prions are protein-based infectious agents that autocatalytically convert the cellular prion protein PrPC to its pathological isoform PrPSc. Subsequent aggregation and accumulation of PrPSc in nervous tissues causes several invariably fatal neurodegenerative diseases in humans and animals. Prions can infect recipient cells when packaged into endosome-derived nanoparticles called exosomes, which are present in biological fluids such as blood, urine, and saliva. Autophagy is a basic cellular degradation and recycling machinery that also affects exosomal processing, but whether autophagy controls release of prions in exosomes is unclear. Our work investigated the effect of autophagy modulation on exosomal release of prions and how this interplay affects cellular prion infection. Exosomes isolated from cultured murine central neuronal cells (CAD5) and peripheral neuronal cells (N2a) contained prions as shown by immunoblotting for PrPSc, prion-conversion activity, and cell culture infection. We observed that autophagy stimulation with the mTOR inhibitor rapamycin strongly inhibited exosomal prion release. In contrast, inhibition of autophagy by wortmannin or CRISPR/Cas9-mediated knockout of the autophagy protein Atg5 (autophagy-related 5) greatly increased the release of exosomes and exosome-associated prions. We also show that a difference in exosomal prion release between CAD5 and N2a cells is related to differences at the level of basal autophagy. Taken together, our results indicate that autophagy modulation can control lateral transfer of prions by interfering with their exosomal release. We describe a novel role of autophagy in the prion life cycle, an understanding that may provide useful targets for containing prion diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Basant A Abdulrahman
- From the Department of Comparative Biology & Experimental Medicine and.,the Calgary Prion Research Unit, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta T2N 4Z6, Canada.,the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Helwan University, 11795 Cairo, Egypt, and
| | - Dalia H Abdelaziz
- From the Department of Comparative Biology & Experimental Medicine and.,the Calgary Prion Research Unit, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta T2N 4Z6, Canada.,the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Helwan University, 11795 Cairo, Egypt, and
| | - Hermann M Schatzl
- From the Department of Comparative Biology & Experimental Medicine and .,the Calgary Prion Research Unit, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta T2N 4Z6, Canada.,the Departments of Veterinary Sciences and of Molecular Biology, University of Wyoming, Laramie, Wyoming 82071
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Venkat P, Chopp M, Chen J. Cell-Based and Exosome Therapy in Diabetic Stroke. Stem Cells Transl Med 2018; 7:451-455. [PMID: 29498242 PMCID: PMC5980126 DOI: 10.1002/sctm.18-0014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2018] [Accepted: 02/15/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Stroke is a global health concern and it is imperative that therapeutic strategies with wide treatment time frames be developed to improve neurological outcome in patients. Patients with diabetes mellitus who suffer a stroke have worse neurological outcomes and long‐term functional recovery than nondiabetic stroke patients. Diabetes induced vascular damage and enhanced inflammatory milieu likely contributes to worse post stroke outcomes. Diabetic stroke patients have an aggravated pathological cascade, and treatments that benefit nondiabetic stroke patients do not necessarily translate to diabetic stroke patients. Therefore, there is a critical need to develop therapeutics for stroke specifically in the diabetic population. Stem cell based therapy for stroke is an emerging treatment option with wide therapeutic time window. Cell‐based therapies for stroke promote endogenous central nervous system repair and neurorestorative mechanisms such as angiogenesis, neurogenesis, vascular remodeling, white matter remodeling, and also modulate inflammatory and immune responses at the local and systemic level. Emerging evidence suggests that exosomes and their cargo microRNA mediate cell therapy derived neurorestorative effects. Exosomes are small vesicles containing protein and RNA characteristic of its parent cell. Exosomes are transported by biological fluids and facilitate communication between neighboring and remote cells. MicroRNAs, a class of naturally occurring, small noncoding RNA sequences, contained within exosomes can regulate recipient cell's signaling pathways and alter protein expression either acting alone or in concert with other microRNAs. In this perspective article, we summarize current knowledge and highlight the promising future of cell based and exosome therapy for stroke and specifically for diabetic stroke. stemcellstranslationalmedicine2018;7:451–455
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Michael Chopp
- Neurology Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit, Michigan, USA.,Department of Physics, Oakland University, Rochester, Michigan, USA
| | - Jieli Chen
- Neurology Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit, Michigan, USA.,Department of Geriatrics, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin Neurological Institute, Key Laboratory of Post-Neurotrauma Neurorepair and Regeneration in Central Nervous System, Ministry of Education and Tianjin City, Tianjin, People's Republic of China
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15
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Sarnataro D, Pepe A, Zurzolo C. Cell Biology of Prion Protein. PROGRESS IN MOLECULAR BIOLOGY AND TRANSLATIONAL SCIENCE 2017; 150:57-82. [PMID: 28838675 DOI: 10.1016/bs.pmbts.2017.06.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Cellular prion protein (PrPC) is a mammalian glycoprotein which is usually found anchored to the plasma membrane via a glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchor. The precise function of PrPC remains elusive but may depend upon its cellular localization. PrPC misfolds to a pathogenic isoform PrPSc, the causative agent of neurodegenerative prion diseases. Nonetheless some forms of prion disease develop in the apparent absence of infectious PrPSc, suggesting that molecular species of PrP distinct from PrPSc may represent the primary neurotoxic culprits. Indeed, in some inherited cases of human prion disease, the predominant form of PrP detectable in the brain is not PrPSc but rather CtmPrP, a transmembrane form of the protein. The relationship between the neurodegeneration occurring in prion diseases involving PrPSc and that associated with CtmPrP remains unclear. However, the different membrane topology of the PrP mutants, as well as the presence of the GPI anchor, could influence both the function and the intracellular localization and trafficking of the protein, all being potentially very important in the pathophysiological mechanism that ultimately causes the disease. Here, we review the latest findings on the fundamental aspects of prions biology, from the PrPC biosynthesis, function, and structure up to its intracellular traffic and analyze the possible roles of the different topological isoforms of the protein, as well as the GPI anchor, in the pathogenesis of the disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Sarnataro
- University of Naples "Federico II", Naples, Italy; Ceinge-Biotecnologie avanzate, s.c.a r.l., Naples, Italy.
| | - Anna Pepe
- University of Naples "Federico II", Naples, Italy; Unité de Trafic Membranaire et Pathogenese, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
| | - Chiara Zurzolo
- University of Naples "Federico II", Naples, Italy; Unité de Trafic Membranaire et Pathogenese, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
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16
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Linden R. The Biological Function of the Prion Protein: A Cell Surface Scaffold of Signaling Modules. Front Mol Neurosci 2017; 10:77. [PMID: 28373833 PMCID: PMC5357658 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2017.00077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2016] [Accepted: 03/06/2017] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The prion glycoprotein (PrPC) is mostly located at the cell surface, tethered to the plasma membrane through a glycosyl-phosphatydil inositol (GPI) anchor. Misfolding of PrPC is associated with the transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs), whereas its normal conformer serves as a receptor for oligomers of the β-amyloid peptide, which play a major role in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer’s Disease (AD). PrPC is highly expressed in both the nervous and immune systems, as well as in other organs, but its functions are controversial. Extensive experimental work disclosed multiple physiological roles of PrPC at the molecular, cellular and systemic levels, affecting the homeostasis of copper, neuroprotection, stem cell renewal and memory mechanisms, among others. Often each such process has been heralded as the bona fide function of PrPC, despite restricted attention paid to a selected phenotypic trait, associated with either modulation of gene expression or to the engagement of PrPC with a single ligand. In contrast, the GPI-anchored prion protein was shown to bind several extracellular and transmembrane ligands, which are required to endow that protein with the ability to play various roles in transmembrane signal transduction. In addition, differing sets of those ligands are available in cell type- and context-dependent scenarios. To account for such properties, we proposed that PrPC serves as a dynamic platform for the assembly of signaling modules at the cell surface, with widespread consequences for both physiology and behavior. The current review advances the hypothesis that the biological function of the prion protein is that of a cell surface scaffold protein, based on the striking similarities of its functional properties with those of scaffold proteins involved in the organization of intracellular signal transduction pathways. Those properties are: the ability to recruit spatially restricted sets of binding molecules involved in specific signaling; mediation of the crosstalk of signaling pathways; reciprocal allosteric regulation with binding partners; compartmentalized responses; dependence of signaling properties upon posttranslational modification; and stoichiometric requirements and/or oligomerization-dependent impact on signaling. The scaffold concept may contribute to novel approaches to the development of effective treatments to hitherto incurable neurodegenerative diseases, through informed modulation of prion protein-ligand interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rafael Linden
- Laboratory of Neurogenesis, Institute of Biophysics, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
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17
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The role of extracellular vesicles in neurodegenerative diseases. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2017; 483:1178-1186. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2016.09.090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 119] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2016] [Revised: 09/08/2016] [Accepted: 09/18/2016] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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18
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Al-Mayah AHJ, Bright SJ, Bowler DA, Slijepcevic P, Goodwin E, Kadhim MA. Exosome-Mediated Telomere Instability in Human Breast Epithelial Cancer Cells after X Irradiation. Radiat Res 2016; 187:98-106. [PMID: 27959588 DOI: 10.1667/rr14201.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
In directly irradiating cells, telomere metabolism is altered and similar effects have been observed in nontargeted cells. Exosomes and their cargo play dominant roles in communicating radiation-induced bystander effects with end points related to DNA damage. Here we report novel evidence that exosomes are also responsible for inducing telomere-related bystander effects. Breast epithelial cancer cells were exposed to either 2 Gy X rays, or exposed to irradiated cell conditioned media (ICCM), or exosomes purified from ICCM. Compared to control cells, telomerase activity decreased in the 2 Gy irradiated cells and both bystander samples after one population doubling. At the first population doubling, telomere length was shorter in the 2 Gy irradiated sample but not in the bystander samples. By 24 population doublings telomerase activity recovered to control levels in all samples; however, the 2 Gy irradiated sample continued to demonstrate short telomeres and both bystander samples acquired shorter telomeres. RNase treatment of exosomes prevented the bystander effects on telomerase and telomere length that were observed at 1 population doubling and 24 population doublings, respectively. Thermal denaturation by boiling eliminated the reduction of telomere length in bystander samples, suggesting that the protein fraction of exosomes also contributes to the telomeric effect. RNase treatment plus boiling abrogated all telomere-related effects in directly irradiated and bystander cell populations. These findings suggest that both proteins and RNAs of exosomes can induce alterations in telomeric metabolism, which can instigate genomic instability in epithelial cancer cells after X-ray irradiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ammar H J Al-Mayah
- a Genomic Instability Group, Oxford Brookes University, Gipsy Lane Campus, Headington, Oxford OX3 0BP, United Kingdom
| | - Scott J Bright
- a Genomic Instability Group, Oxford Brookes University, Gipsy Lane Campus, Headington, Oxford OX3 0BP, United Kingdom
| | - Debbie A Bowler
- a Genomic Instability Group, Oxford Brookes University, Gipsy Lane Campus, Headington, Oxford OX3 0BP, United Kingdom
| | - Predrag Slijepcevic
- b Department of Life Sciences, College of Health and Life Sciences, Brunel University, London UB8 3PH, United Kingdom
| | - Edwin Goodwin
- c The New Mexico Consortium, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87544
| | - Munira A Kadhim
- a Genomic Instability Group, Oxford Brookes University, Gipsy Lane Campus, Headington, Oxford OX3 0BP, United Kingdom
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Cervenakova L, Saá P, Yakovleva O, Vasilyeva I, de Castro J, Brown P, Dodd R. Are prions transported by plasma exosomes? Transfus Apher Sci 2016; 55:70-83. [PMID: 27499183 DOI: 10.1016/j.transci.2016.07.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Blood has been shown to contain disease-associated misfolded prion protein (PrP(TSE)) in animals naturally and experimentally infected with various transmissible spongiform encephalopathy (TSE) agents, and in humans infected with variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (vCJD). Recently, we have demonstrated PrP(TSE) in extracellular vesicle preparations (EVs) containing exosomes from plasma of mice infected with mouse-adapted vCJD by Protein Misfolding Cyclic Amplification (PMCA). Here we report the detection of PrP(TSE) by PMCA in EVs from plasma of mice infected with Fukuoka-1 (FU), an isolate from a Gerstmann-Sträussler-Scheinker disease patient. We used Tga20 transgenic mice that over-express mouse cellular prion protein, to assay by intracranial injections the level of infectivity in a FU-infected brain homogenate from wild-type mice (FU-BH), and in blood cellular components (BCC), consisting of red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets, plasma EVs, and plasma EVs subjected to multiple rounds of PMCA. Only FU-BH and plasma EVs from FU-infected mice subjected to PMCA that contained PrP(TSE) transmitted disease to Tga20 mice. Plasma EVs not subjected to PMCA and BCC from FU-infected mice failed to transmit disease. These findings confirm the high sensitivity of PMCA for PrP(TSE) detection in plasma EVs and the efficiency of this in vitro method to produce highly infectious prions. The results of our study encourage further research to define the role of EVs and, more specifically exosomes, as blood-borne carriers of PrP(TSE).
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Affiliation(s)
- Larisa Cervenakova
- Scientific Affairs, American National Red Cross, Rockville, Maryland, USA.
| | - Paula Saá
- Scientific Affairs, American National Red Cross, Rockville, Maryland, USA
| | - Oksana Yakovleva
- Scientific Affairs, American National Red Cross, Rockville, Maryland, USA; The Laboratory of Bacterial and Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathy Agents, DETTD, OBRR, CBER, US Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
| | - Irina Vasilyeva
- Scientific Affairs, American National Red Cross, Rockville, Maryland, USA
| | - Jorge de Castro
- Scientific Affairs, American National Red Cross, Rockville, Maryland, USA; Meso Scale Diagnostics, LLC, Rockville, Maryland, USA
| | - Paul Brown
- National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Roger Dodd
- Scientific Affairs, American National Red Cross, Rockville, Maryland, USA
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20
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Guitart K, Loers G, Buck F, Bork U, Schachner M, Kleene R. Improvement of neuronal cell survival by astrocyte-derived exosomes under hypoxic and ischemic conditions depends on prion protein. Glia 2016; 64:896-910. [PMID: 26992135 DOI: 10.1002/glia.22963] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2015] [Accepted: 12/18/2015] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Prion protein (PrP) protects neural cells against oxidative stress, hypoxia, ischemia, and hypoglycemia. In the present study we confirm that cultured PrP-deficient neurons are more sensitive to oxidative stress than wild-type neurons and present the novel findings that wild-type, but not PrP-deficient astrocytes protect wild-type cerebellar neurons against oxidative stress and that exosomes released from stressed wild-type, but not from stressed PrP-deficient astrocytes reduce neuronal cell death induced by oxidative stress. We show that neuroprotection by exosomes of stressed astrocytes depends on exosomal PrP but not on neuronal PrP and that astrocyte-derived exosomal PrP enters into neurons, suggesting neuronal uptake of astrocyte-derived exosomes. Upon exposure of wild-type astrocytes to hypoxic or ischemic conditions PrP levels in exosomes were increased. By mass spectrometry and Western blot analysis, we detected increased levels of 37/67 kDa laminin receptor, apolipoprotein E and the ribosomal proteins S3 and P0, and decreased levels of clusterin/apolipoprotein J in exosomes from wild-type astrocytes exposed to oxygen/glucose deprivation relative to exosomes from astrocytes maintained under normoxic conditions. The levels of these proteins were not altered in exosomes from stressed PrP-deficient astrocytes relative to unstressed PrP-deficient astrocytes. These results indicate that PrP in astrocytes is a sensor for oxidative stress and mediates beneficial cellular responses, e.g. release of exosomes carrying PrP and other molecules, resulting in improved survival of neurons under hypoxic and ischemic conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathrin Guitart
- Zentrum Für Molekulare Neurobiologie, Universitätsklinikum Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Gabriele Loers
- Zentrum Für Molekulare Neurobiologie, Universitätsklinikum Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Friedrich Buck
- Institut Für Klinische Chemie, Universitätsklinikum Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Ute Bork
- Zentrum Für Molekulare Neurobiologie, Universitätsklinikum Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Melitta Schachner
- Keck Center for Collaborative Neuroscience and Department of Cell Biology and Neuroscience, Rutgers University, Piscataway, New Jersey
- Center for Neuroscience, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, Guangdong, China
| | - Ralf Kleene
- Zentrum Für Molekulare Neurobiologie, Universitätsklinikum Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
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21
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Iraci N, Leonardi T, Gessler F, Vega B, Pluchino S. Focus on Extracellular Vesicles: Physiological Role and Signalling Properties of Extracellular Membrane Vesicles. Int J Mol Sci 2016; 17:171. [PMID: 26861302 PMCID: PMC4783905 DOI: 10.3390/ijms17020171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 207] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2015] [Accepted: 09/24/2015] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are a heterogeneous population of secreted membrane vesicles, with distinct biogenesis routes, biophysical properties and different functions both in physiological conditions and in disease. The release of EVs is a widespread biological process, which is conserved across species. In recent years, numerous studies have demonstrated that several bioactive molecules are trafficked with(in) EVs, such as microRNAs, mRNAs, proteins and lipids. The understanding of their final impact on the biology of specific target cells remains matter of intense debate in the field. Also, EVs have attracted great interest as potential novel cell-free therapeutics. Here we describe the proposed physiological and pathological functions of EVs, with a particular focus on their molecular content. Also, we discuss the advances in the knowledge of the mechanisms regulating the secretion of EV-associated molecules and the specific pathways activated upon interaction with the target cell, highlighting the role of EVs in the context of the immune system and as mediators of the intercellular signalling in the brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nunzio Iraci
- Wellcome Trust-Medical Research Council Stem Cell Institute, Clifford Allbutt Building-Cambridge Biosciences Campus, Department of Clinical Neurosciences, and NIHR Biomedical Research Centre, University of Cambridge, Hills Road CB2 0PY, UK.
| | - Tommaso Leonardi
- Wellcome Trust-Medical Research Council Stem Cell Institute, Clifford Allbutt Building-Cambridge Biosciences Campus, Department of Clinical Neurosciences, and NIHR Biomedical Research Centre, University of Cambridge, Hills Road CB2 0PY, UK.
- EMBL-European Bioinformatics Institute, Wellcome Trust Genome Campus, Hinxton CB10 1SD, UK.
| | - Florian Gessler
- Wellcome Trust-Medical Research Council Stem Cell Institute, Clifford Allbutt Building-Cambridge Biosciences Campus, Department of Clinical Neurosciences, and NIHR Biomedical Research Centre, University of Cambridge, Hills Road CB2 0PY, UK.
| | - Beatriz Vega
- Wellcome Trust-Medical Research Council Stem Cell Institute, Clifford Allbutt Building-Cambridge Biosciences Campus, Department of Clinical Neurosciences, and NIHR Biomedical Research Centre, University of Cambridge, Hills Road CB2 0PY, UK.
| | - Stefano Pluchino
- Wellcome Trust-Medical Research Council Stem Cell Institute, Clifford Allbutt Building-Cambridge Biosciences Campus, Department of Clinical Neurosciences, and NIHR Biomedical Research Centre, University of Cambridge, Hills Road CB2 0PY, UK.
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22
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Berrone E, Corona C, Mazza M, Costassa EV, Faro ML, Properzi F, Guglielmetti C, Maurella C, Caramelli M, Deregibus MC, Camussi G, Casalone C. Detection of cellular prion protein in exosomes derived from ovine plasma. J Gen Virol 2015; 96:3698-3702. [PMID: 26399471 PMCID: PMC4804764 DOI: 10.1099/jgv.0.000291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2014] [Accepted: 09/18/2015] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Prion protein (PrP) is present at extremely low levels in the blood of animals and its detection is complicated by the poor sensitivity of current standard methodologies. Interesting results have been obtained with recent advanced technologies that are able to detect minute amounts of the pathological PrP (PrPSc), but their efficiency is reduced by various factors present in blood. In this study, we were able to extract cellular PrP (PrPC) from plasma-derived exosomes by a simple, fast method without the use of differential ultracentrifugation and to visualize it by Western blotting, reducing the presence of most plasma proteins. This result confirms that blood is capable of releasing PrP in association with exosomes and could be useful to better study its role in the pathogenesis of transmissible spongiform encephalopathies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena Berrone
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Piemonte, Liguria e Valle d'Aosta, Via Bologna 148, 10154 Turin, Italy
| | - Cristiano Corona
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Piemonte, Liguria e Valle d'Aosta, Via Bologna 148, 10154 Turin, Italy
| | - Maria Mazza
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Piemonte, Liguria e Valle d'Aosta, Via Bologna 148, 10154 Turin, Italy
| | - Elena Vallino Costassa
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Piemonte, Liguria e Valle d'Aosta, Via Bologna 148, 10154 Turin, Italy
| | - Monica Lo Faro
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Piemonte, Liguria e Valle d'Aosta, Via Bologna 148, 10154 Turin, Italy
| | - Francesca Properzi
- Department of Cellular Biology and Neuroscience, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Viale Regina Elena 299, 00161 Rome, Italy
| | - Chiara Guglielmetti
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Piemonte, Liguria e Valle d'Aosta, Via Bologna 148, 10154 Turin, Italy
| | - Cristiana Maurella
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Piemonte, Liguria e Valle d'Aosta, Via Bologna 148, 10154 Turin, Italy
| | - Maria Caramelli
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Piemonte, Liguria e Valle d'Aosta, Via Bologna 148, 10154 Turin, Italy
| | - Maria Chiara Deregibus
- Department of Internal Medicine and Molecular Biotechnology Center, University of Turin, Corso Dogliotti 14, 10126 Turin, Italy
| | - Giovanni Camussi
- Department of Internal Medicine and Molecular Biotechnology Center, University of Turin, Corso Dogliotti 14, 10126 Turin, Italy
| | - Cristina Casalone
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Piemonte, Liguria e Valle d'Aosta, Via Bologna 148, 10154 Turin, Italy
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23
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Affiliation(s)
- Yin Tintut
- From the Department of Medicine (Y.T., L.L.D.), Department of Physiology (L.L.D.), and Department of Bioengineering (L.L.D.), UCLA
| | - Linda L Demer
- From the Department of Medicine (Y.T., L.L.D.), Department of Physiology (L.L.D.), and Department of Bioengineering (L.L.D.), UCLA.
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24
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Pegtel DM, Peferoen L, Amor S. Extracellular vesicles as modulators of cell-to-cell communication in the healthy and diseased brain. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2015; 369:rstb.2013.0516. [PMID: 25135977 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2013.0516] [Citation(s) in RCA: 154] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Homeostasis relies heavily on effective cell-to-cell communication. In the central nervous system (CNS), probably more so than in other organs, such communication is crucial to support and protect neurons especially during ageing, as well as to control inflammation, remove debris and infectious agents. Emerging evidence indicates that extracellular vesicles (EVs) including endosome-derived exosomes and fragments of the cellular plasma membrane play a key role in intercellular communication by transporting messenger RNA, microRNA (miRNA) and proteins. In neurodegenerative diseases, secreted vesicles not only remove misfolded proteins, but also transfer aggregated proteins and prions and are thus thought to perpetuate diseases by 'infecting' neighbouring cells with these pathogenic proteins. Conversely, in other CNS disorders signals from stressed cells may help control inflammation and inhibit degeneration. EVs may also reflect the status of the CNS and are present in the cerebrospinal fluid indicating that exosomes may act as biomarkers of disease. That extracellular RNA and in particular miRNA, can be transferred by EV also indicates that these vesicles could be used as carriers to specifically target the CNS to deliver immune modulatory drugs, neuroprotective agents and anti-cancer drugs. Here, we discuss the recent evidence indicating the potential role of exosomes in neurological disorders and how knowledge of their biology may enable a Trojan-horse approach to deliver drugs into the CNS and treat neurodegenerative and other disorders of the CNS.
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Affiliation(s)
- D M Pegtel
- Exosomes Research Group, VU University Medical Center, 1007 MB Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - L Peferoen
- Neuropathology, Department of Pathology, VU University Medical Center, 1007 MB Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - S Amor
- Neuropathology, Department of Pathology, VU University Medical Center, 1007 MB Amsterdam, The Netherlands Neuroimmunology Unit, Blizard Institute, Barts and the London School of Medicine and Dentistry, Queen Mary University of London, London E1 2AT, UK
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25
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Lai RC, Yeo RWY, Lim SK. Mesenchymal stem cell exosomes. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2015; 40:82-8. [PMID: 25765629 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2015.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 368] [Impact Index Per Article: 40.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2014] [Revised: 03/02/2015] [Accepted: 03/03/2015] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
MSCs are an extensively used cell type in clinical trials today. The initial rationale for their clinical testing was based on their differentiation potential. However, the lack of correlation between functional improvement and cell engraftment or differentiation at the site of injury has led to the proposal that MSCs exert their effects not through their differentiation potential but through their secreted product, more specifically, exosomes, a type of extracellular vesicle. We propose here that MSC exosomes function as an extension of MSC's biological role as tissue stromal support cells. Like their cell source, MSC exosomes help maintain tissue homeostasis for optimal tissue function. They target housekeeping biological processes that operate ubiquitously in all tissues and are critical in maintaining tissue homeostasis, enabling cells to recover critical cellular functions and begin repair and regeneration. This hypothesis provides a rationale for the therapeutic efficacy of MSCs and their secreted exosomes in a wide spectrum of diseases. Here, we give a brief introduction of the biogenesis of MSC exosomes, review their physiological functions and highlight some of their biochemical potential to illustrate how MSC exosomes could restore tissue homeostasis leading to tissue recovery and repair.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruenn Chai Lai
- Institute of Medical Biology, Agency for Science, Technology and Research, Singapore
| | - Ronne Wee Yeh Yeo
- Institute of Medical Biology, Agency for Science, Technology and Research, Singapore
| | - Sai Kiang Lim
- Institute of Medical Biology, Agency for Science, Technology and Research, Singapore; Department of Surgery, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore.
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26
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Al-Mayah A, Bright S, Chapman K, Irons S, Luo P, Carter D, Goodwin E, Kadhim M. The non-targeted effects of radiation are perpetuated by exosomes. Mutat Res 2014; 772:38-45. [PMID: 25772109 DOI: 10.1016/j.mrfmmm.2014.12.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 115] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2014] [Revised: 12/05/2014] [Accepted: 12/22/2014] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Exosomes contain cargo material from endosomes, cytosol, plasma membrane and microRNA molecules, they are released by a number of non-cancer and cancer cells into both the extracellular microenvironment and body fluids such as blood plasma. Recently we demonstrated radiation-induced non-targeted effects [NTE: genomic instability (GI) and bystander effects (BE)] are partially mediated by exosomes, particularly the RNA content. However the mechanistic role of exosomes in NTE is yet to be fully understood. The present study used MCF7 cells to characterise the longevity of exosome-induced activity in the progeny of irradiated and unirradiated bystander cells. Exosomes extracted from conditioned media of irradiated and bystander progeny were added to unirradiated cells. Analysis was carried out at 1 and 20/24 population doublings following medium/exosome transfer for DNA/chromosomal damage. Results confirmed exosomes play a significant role in mediating NTE of ionising radiation (IR). This effect was remarkably persistent, observed >20 doublings post-irradiation in the progeny of bystander cells. Additionally, cell progeny undergoing a BE were themselves capable of inducing BE in other cells via exosomes they released. Furthermore we investigated the role of exosome cargo. Culture media from cells exposed to 2 Gy X-rays was subjected to ultracentrifugation and four inoculants prepared, (a) supernatants with exosomes removed, and pellets with (b) exosome proteins denatured, (c) RNA degraded, and (d) a combination of protein-RNA inactivation. These were added to separate populations of unirradiated cells. The BE was partially inhibited when either exosome protein or exosome RNA were inactivated separately, whilst combined RNA-protein inhibition significantly reduced or eliminated the BE. These results demonstrate that exosomes are associated with long-lived signalling of the NTE of IR. Both RNA and protein molecules of exosomes work in a synergistic manner to initiate NTE, spread these effects to naïve cells, and perpetuate GI in the affected cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ammar Al-Mayah
- Genomic Instability Group, Oxford Brookes University, Gipsy Lane Campus, Headington, Oxford OX3 0BP, United Kingdom
| | - Scott Bright
- Genomic Instability Group, Oxford Brookes University, Gipsy Lane Campus, Headington, Oxford OX3 0BP, United Kingdom
| | - Kim Chapman
- Genomic Instability Group, Oxford Brookes University, Gipsy Lane Campus, Headington, Oxford OX3 0BP, United Kingdom
| | - Sarah Irons
- Insect Virus Research Group, Oxford Brookes University, Gipsy Lane Campus, Headington, Oxford OX3 0BP, United Kingdom
| | - Ping Luo
- Izon Science Ltd., The Oxford Science Park, Magdalen Centre, Robert Robinson Avenue, Oxford OX4 4GA, United Kingdom
| | - David Carter
- Chromatin and non-coding RNA, Oxford Brookes University, Gipsy Lane Campus, Headington, Oxford OX3 0BP, United Kingdom
| | - Edwin Goodwin
- The New Mexico Consortium, Los Alamos, NM 87544, USA
| | - Munira Kadhim
- Genomic Instability Group, Oxford Brookes University, Gipsy Lane Campus, Headington, Oxford OX3 0BP, United Kingdom.
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27
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Saá P, Yakovleva O, de Castro J, Vasilyeva I, De Paoli SH, Simak J, Cervenakova L. First demonstration of transmissible spongiform encephalopathy-associated prion protein (PrPTSE) in extracellular vesicles from plasma of mice infected with mouse-adapted variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease by in vitro amplification. J Biol Chem 2014; 289:29247-60. [PMID: 25157106 PMCID: PMC4200276 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m114.589564] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2014] [Revised: 08/12/2014] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
The development of variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (vCJD) in three recipients of non-leukoreduced red blood cells from asymptomatic donors who subsequently developed the disease has confirmed existing concerns about the possible spread of transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs) via blood products. In addition, the presence of disease-associated misfolded prion protein (PrP(TSE)), generally associated with infectivity, has been demonstrated in the blood of vCJD patients. However, its origin and distribution in this biological fluid are still unknown. Various studies have identified cellular prion protein (PrP(C)) among the protein cargo in human blood-circulating extracellular vesicles released from endothelial cells and platelets, and exosomes isolated from the conditioned media of TSE-infected cells have caused the disease when injected into experimental mice. In this study, we demonstrate the detection of PrP(TSE) in extracellular vesicles isolated from plasma samples collected during the preclinical and clinical phases of the disease from mice infected with mouse-adapted vCJD and confirm the presence of the exosomal marker Hsp70 in these preparations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paula Saá
- From the Transmissible Diseases Department, Biomedical Services Holland Laboratory, American National Red Cross, Rockville, Maryland 20855 and
| | - Oksana Yakovleva
- From the Transmissible Diseases Department, Biomedical Services Holland Laboratory, American National Red Cross, Rockville, Maryland 20855 and
| | - Jorge de Castro
- From the Transmissible Diseases Department, Biomedical Services Holland Laboratory, American National Red Cross, Rockville, Maryland 20855 and
| | - Irina Vasilyeva
- From the Transmissible Diseases Department, Biomedical Services Holland Laboratory, American National Red Cross, Rockville, Maryland 20855 and
| | - Silvia H De Paoli
- the Laboratory of Cellular Hematology, Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, United States Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, Maryland 20993
| | - Jan Simak
- the Laboratory of Cellular Hematology, Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, United States Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, Maryland 20993
| | - Larisa Cervenakova
- From the Transmissible Diseases Department, Biomedical Services Holland Laboratory, American National Red Cross, Rockville, Maryland 20855 and
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28
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Jackson WS. Selective vulnerability to neurodegenerative disease: the curious case of Prion Protein. Dis Model Mech 2014; 7:21-9. [PMID: 24396151 PMCID: PMC3882045 DOI: 10.1242/dmm.012146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
The mechanisms underlying the selective targeting of specific brain regions by different neurodegenerative diseases is one of the most intriguing mysteries in medicine. For example, it is known that Alzheimer’s disease primarily affects parts of the brain that play a role in memory, whereas Parkinson’s disease predominantly affects parts of the brain that are involved in body movement. However, the reasons that other brain regions remain unaffected in these diseases are unknown. A better understanding of the phenomenon of selective vulnerability is required for the development of targeted therapeutic approaches that specifically protect affected neurons, thereby altering the disease course and preventing its progression. Prion diseases are a fascinating group of neurodegenerative diseases because they exhibit a wide phenotypic spectrum caused by different sequence perturbations in a single protein. The possible ways that mutations affecting this protein can cause several distinct neurodegenerative diseases are explored in this Review to highlight the complexity underlying selective vulnerability. The premise of this article is that selective vulnerability is determined by the interaction of specific protein conformers and region-specific microenvironments harboring unique combinations of subcellular components such as metals, chaperones and protein translation machinery. Given the abundance of potential contributory factors in the neurodegenerative process, a better understanding of how these factors interact will provide invaluable insight into disease mechanisms to guide therapeutic discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Walker S Jackson
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Sigmund-Freud-Str. 25, 53127-Bonn, Germany
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29
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Pocsfalvi G, Stanly C, Vilasi A, Fiume I, Tatè R, Capasso G. Employing extracellular vesicles for non-invasive renal monitoring: A captivating prospect. World J Clin Urol 2014; 3:66-80. [DOI: 10.5410/wjcu.v3.i2.66] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2014] [Revised: 06/09/2014] [Accepted: 06/27/2014] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are fascinating nano-sized subjects extensively studied over the recent years across several disparate disciplines. EVs are endlessly secreted into the extracellular microenvironment by most cell types under physiological and pathological conditions. EVs encompass a variety of molecular constituents from their cell of origin, such as lipids, cell specific proteins and RNAs, thus constituting an informative resource for studying molecular events at the cellular level. There are three main classes of EVs classified based on their size, content, biogenesis and biological functions: exosomes, shedding microvesicles and apoptotic bodies. Besides cell culture supernatants, biological fluids have also been shown to contain different types of EVs. Amongst the various body fluids, the study of urinary extracellular vesicles (uEVs) as a source of candidate biomarkers gained much attention, since: (1) urine can be non-invasively collected in large amounts; and (2) the isolated uEVs are stable for a relatively long period of time. Here, we review the important aspects of urinary extracellular vesicles which are fast gaining attention as a promising future tool for the non-invasive monitoring of urinary tract. Recent advancements in the purification and analysis of uEVs and collection of their constituents in rapidly developing public databases, allow their better exploitation in molecular diagnostics. As a result, a growing number of studies have shown that changes in expression profile at the RNA and/or protein levels of uEVs reveal the molecular architectures of underlying key pathophysiological events of different clinically important diseases with kidney involvement.
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Natasha G, Gundogan B, Tan A, Farhatnia Y, Wu W, Rajadas J, Seifalian AM. Exosomes as Immunotheranostic Nanoparticles. Clin Ther 2014; 36:820-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.clinthera.2014.04.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2014] [Revised: 04/25/2014] [Accepted: 04/28/2014] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Kotzerke K, Mempel M, Aung T, Wulf GG, Urlaub H, Wenzel D, Schön MP, Braun A. Immunostimulatory activity of murine keratinocyte-derived exosomes. Exp Dermatol 2013; 22:650-5. [DOI: 10.1111/exd.12230] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/20/2013] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Kristina Kotzerke
- Department of Dermatology, Venereology, and Allergology; Georg August University; Göttingen; Germany
| | - Martin Mempel
- Department of Dermatology, Venereology, and Allergology; Georg August University; Göttingen; Germany
| | - Thiha Aung
- Department of Hematology and Oncology; Georg August University; Göttingen; Germany
| | - Gerald G. Wulf
- Department of Hematology and Oncology; Georg August University; Göttingen; Germany
| | | | - Dirk Wenzel
- Electron Microscopy Group; Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry; Göttingen; Germany
| | - Michael P. Schön
- Department of Dermatology, Venereology, and Allergology; Georg August University; Göttingen; Germany
| | - Andrea Braun
- Department of Dermatology, Venereology, and Allergology; Georg August University; Göttingen; Germany
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Tan A, Rajadas J, Seifalian AM. Exosomes as nano-theranostic delivery platforms for gene therapy. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2013; 65:357-67. [PMID: 22820532 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2012.06.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 183] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2011] [Revised: 05/27/2012] [Accepted: 06/20/2012] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Exosomes are biological membrane vesicles measuring 30 to 100 nm. They contain an abundance of small molecules like tetraspanins, receptors for targeting and adhesion, lipids, and RNA. They are secreted by most biological cells, and are involved in a plethora of physiological functions including, but not limited to, transport of genetic material, modulation of the immune system, and cell-to-cell communication. It has been further reported that exosomes utilize a mechanism similar to that of viruses for gaining entry into cells. Due to their viral-like transfection efficiency and inherent biological function, compelling evidence indicates that exosomes can be used as novel delivery platforms for gene therapy. Furthermore, RNA-containing exosomes derived from cells can serve as functional genetic biomarkers for diseases. This twin modality of therapeutic and diagnostic is termed theranostics in the emerging field of nanomedicine. Hence in this review, we seek to expound on the various facets of exosomes, highlighting their significance in and relevance to nano-theranostic platforms for gene therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aaron Tan
- UCL Centre for Nanotechnology & Regenerative Medicine, UCL Division of Surgery & Interventional Science, University College London, London NW3 2QG, UK
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Xu D, Tahara H. The role of exosomes and microRNAs in senescence and aging. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2013; 65:368-75. [PMID: 22820533 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2012.07.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2012] [Revised: 07/03/2012] [Accepted: 07/08/2012] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Senescence is viewed as a cellular counterpart to aging of tissues and organisms, characterized by an irreversible growth arrest and a combination of changes in cell morphology, function and behavior. microRNAs (miRNAs), the most studied small non-coding RNAs, play an important role in many biological processes by the regulation of gene expression. Recent evidence has shown that miRNAs are contained in exosomes that are tiny vesicles of endocytic origin and released by a variety of different cells as a means for cell-to-cell contact and information transfer. Exosomes and miRNAs have been found to participate in the complex networks of cellular senescence and contribute to aging. Here, we will give an overview on the involvement of secretory factors including exosomes and miRNA in the regulation of cellular senescence, demonstrating the potential role of exosomes and miRNAs in biological processes and signaling pathways of senescence and aging.
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Mesenchymal stem cell: an efficient mass producer of exosomes for drug delivery. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2013; 65:336-41. [PMID: 22780955 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2012.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 574] [Impact Index Per Article: 52.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2012] [Revised: 06/25/2012] [Accepted: 07/01/2012] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Advances in biomedical research have generated an unprecedented number of potential targets for therapeutic intervention to treat disease or delay disease progression. Unfortunately, many of these targets are not druggable as they are intracellular, present in many cell types, poorly soluble or rapidly inactivated. Although synthetic drug vehicles have successfully circumvented many of these problems, natural particulates such as exosomes that intrinsically possess many attributes of a drug delivery vehicle are highly attractive as potentially better alternatives. Of the cell types known to produce exosomes, the readily available proliferative, immunosuppressive and clinically tested human mesenchymal stem cell (MSC) is the most prolific producer. Its exosomes are therapeutic in animal model of disease and exhibit immunosuppressive activity. The quality and quantity of exosome production is not compromised by immortalization to create a permanent MSC cell line. Therefore, MSC is well suited for mass production of exosomes that are ideal for drug delivery.
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35
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Coxsackievirus B transmission and possible new roles for extracellular vesicles. Biochem Soc Trans 2013; 41:299-302. [DOI: 10.1042/bst20120272] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Coxsackievirus B1, a member of the Picornaviridae family is a non-enveloped single-stranded RNA virus associated with human diseases including myocarditis and pancreatitis. Infection of the intestinal mucosa, lined by polarized epithelial cells, requires interaction of coxsackievirus with apically located DAF (decay-accelerating factor) before transport to the basolaterally located CAR (coxsackie and adenovirus receptor), where entry is mediated by endocytosis. As with many other non-enveloped viruses, coxsackievirus has to induce lysis of host cells in order to perpetuate infection. However, recent evidence indicates that virus spread to secondary sites is not only achieved by a lytic mechanism and a non-lytic cell–cell strategy has been suggested for coxsackievirus B3. A physical interaction between infected and non-infected cells has been shown to be an efficient mechanism for retroviral transmission and one type of extracellular vesicle, the exosome, has been implicated in HIV-1 transmission. HIV-1 also takes advantage of depolymerization of actin for spread between T-cells. Calpain-mediated depolymerization of the actin cytoskeleton, as a result of increases in intracellular calcium concentration during coxsackievirus infection, would result in a release of host cell-derived microvesicles. If so, we speculate that maybe such microvesicles, increasingly recognized as major vehicles mediating intercellular communication, could play a role in the intercellular transmission of non-enveloped viruses.
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Characterization of PrP(Sc) transmission from immune cells to neuronal cells. Cell Immunol 2012; 279:145-50. [PMID: 23246505 DOI: 10.1016/j.cellimm.2012.11.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2012] [Accepted: 11/16/2012] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
We investigated PrP(Sc) transmission in neuronal cells, spleen cells and several immune cells using an in vitro cell-to-cell transmission system. The transmission of PrP(Sc) in the supernatant of PrP(Sc)-infected neuronal cells was also investigated. We found that PrP(Sc) transmission was more efficient in the cell-to-cell transmission system than in the supernatant-mediated system. PrP(Sc) was more efficiently transmitted from adherent spleen cells to neuronal cells than from floating spleen cells. The adherent spleen cells were composed of macrophages (80%), dendritic cells (8%) and follicular dendritic cells (3%), indicating that macrophages play an important role in PrP(Sc) transmission from immune cells to neuronal cells. Although PrP(Sc) in the immune cells used as donor cells was gradually degraded, the PrP(Sc) transmitted to neuronal cells was observed by Western blot analysis. Investigation of the mechanism of PrP(Sc) transmission between cells represents an important step towards understanding the pathogenesis of prion diseases.
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Neurokinin 1 receptor mediates membrane blebbing and sheer stress-induced microparticle formation in HEK293 cells. PLoS One 2012; 7:e45322. [PMID: 23024816 PMCID: PMC3443220 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0045322] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2011] [Accepted: 08/20/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Cell-derived microparticles participate in intercellular communication similar to the classical messenger systems of small and macro-molecules that bind to specialized membrane receptors. Microparticles have been implicated in the regulation of a variety of complex physiopathologic processes, such as thrombosis, the control of innate and adaptive immunity, and cancer. The neurokinin 1 receptor (NK1R) is a Gq-coupled receptor present on the membrane of a variety of tissues, including neurons in the central and peripheral nervous system, immune cells, endocrine and exocrine glands, and smooth muscle. The endogenous agonist of NK1R is the undecapeptide substance P (SP). We have previously described intracellular signaling mechanisms that regulate NK1R-mediated rapid cell shape changes in HEK293 cells and U373MG cells. In the present study, we show that the activation of NK1R in HEK293 cells, but not in U373MG cells, leads to formation of sheer-stress induced microparticles that stain positive with the membrane-selective fluorescent dye FM 2-10. SP-induced microparticle formation is independent of elevated intracellular calcium concentrations and activation of NK1R present on HEK293-derived microparticles triggers detectable calcium increase in SP-induced microparticles. The ROCK inhibitor Y27632 and the dynamin inhibitor dynasore inhibited membrane blebbing and microparticle formation in HEK293 cells, strongly suggesting that microparticle formation in this cell type is dependent on membrane blebbing.
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Biljan I, Ilc G, Giachin G, Plavec J, Legname G. Structural Rearrangements at Physiological pH: Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Insights from the V210I Human Prion Protein Mutant. Biochemistry 2012; 51:7465-74. [DOI: 10.1021/bi3009856] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ivana Biljan
- Slovenian NMR Centre, National Institute of Chemistry, Hajdrihova 19, SI-1000
Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Gregor Ilc
- Slovenian NMR Centre, National Institute of Chemistry, Hajdrihova 19, SI-1000
Ljubljana, Slovenia
- EN→FIST Centre of Excellence, Dunajska 156, SI-1001 Ljubljana,
Slovenia
| | - Gabriele Giachin
- Laboratory of Prion
Biology, Department
of Neuroscience, Scuola Internazionale Superiore di Studi Avanzati (SISSA), via Bonomea 265, Trieste, Italy
| | - Janez Plavec
- Slovenian NMR Centre, National Institute of Chemistry, Hajdrihova 19, SI-1000
Ljubljana, Slovenia
- EN→FIST Centre of Excellence, Dunajska 156, SI-1001 Ljubljana,
Slovenia
- Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical
Technology, University of Ljubljana, Aškerčeva
cesta 5, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Giuseppe Legname
- Laboratory of Prion
Biology, Department
of Neuroscience, Scuola Internazionale Superiore di Studi Avanzati (SISSA), via Bonomea 265, Trieste, Italy
- ELETTRA Laboratory, Sincrotrone Trieste S.C.p.A., I-34149 Basovizza, Trieste,
Italy
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Krasemann S, Neumann M, Luepke JP, Grashorn J, Wurr S, Stocking C, Glatzel M. Persistent retroviral infection with MoMuLV influences neuropathological signature and phenotype of prion disease. Acta Neuropathol 2012; 124:111-26. [PMID: 22271154 DOI: 10.1007/s00401-012-0944-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2011] [Revised: 01/08/2012] [Accepted: 01/09/2012] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
A fundamental step in pathophysiology of prion diseases is the conversion of the host encoded prion protein (PrP(C)) into a misfolded isoform (PrP(Sc)) that accumulates mainly in neuronal but also non-neuronal tissues. Prion diseases are transmissible within and between species. In a subset of prion diseases, peripheral prion uptake and subsequent transport to the central nervous system are key to disease initiation. The involvement of retroviruses in this process has been postulated based on the findings that retroviral infections enhance the spread of prion infectivity and PrP(Sc) from cell to cell in vitro. To study whether retroviral infection influences the phenotype of prion disease or the spread of prion infectivity and PrP(Sc) in vivo, we developed a murine model with persistent Moloney murine leukemia retrovirus (MoMuLV) infection with and without additional prion infection. We investigated the pathophysiology of prion disease in MoMuLV and prion-infected mice, monitoring temporal kinetics of PrP(Sc) spread and prion infectivity, as well as clinical presentation. Unexpectedly, infection of MoMuLV challenged mice with prions did not change incubation time to clinical prion disease. However, clinical presentation of prion disease was altered in mice infected with both pathogens. This was paralleled by remarkably enhanced astrogliosis and pathognomonic astrocyte morphology in the brain of these mice. Therefore, we conclude that persistent viral infection might act as a disease modifier in prion disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susanne Krasemann
- Institute of Neuropathology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Martinistrasse 52, 20246, Hamburg, Germany
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Llorens F, Del Río JA. Unraveling the neuroprotective mechanisms of PrP (C) in excitotoxicity. Prion 2012; 6:245-51. [PMID: 22437735 DOI: 10.4161/pri.19639] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Knowledge of the natural roles of cellular prion protein (PrP (C) ) is essential to an understanding of the molecular basis of prion pathologies. This GPI-anchored protein has been described in synaptic contacts, and loss of its synaptic function in complex systems may contribute to the synaptic loss and neuronal degeneration observed in prionopathy. In addition, Prnp knockout mice show enhanced susceptibility to several excitotoxic insults, GABAA receptor-mediated fast inhibition was weakened, LTP was modified and cellular stress increased. Although little is known about how PrP (C) exerts its function at the synapse or the downstream events leading to PrP (C) -mediated neuroprotection against excitotoxic insults, PrP (C) has recently been reported to interact with two glutamate receptor subunits (NR2D and GluR6/7). In both cases the presence of PrP (C) blocks the neurotoxicity induced by NMDA and Kainate respectively. Furthermore, signals for seizure and neuronal cell death in response to Kainate in Prnp knockout mouse are associated with JNK3 activity, through enhancing the interaction of GluR6 with PSD-95. In combination with previous data, these results shed light on the molecular mechanisms behind the role of PrP (C) in excitotoxicity. Future experimental approaches are suggested and discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Franc Llorens
- Molecular and Cellular Neurobiotechnology Group, Institut de Bioenginyeria de Catalunya (IBEC), Parc Científic de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.
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41
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Toward tailored exosomes: the exosomal tetraspanin web contributes to target cell selection. Int J Biochem Cell Biol 2012; 44:1574-84. [PMID: 22728313 DOI: 10.1016/j.biocel.2012.06.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 472] [Impact Index Per Article: 39.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2012] [Revised: 05/02/2012] [Accepted: 06/12/2012] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Exosomes are discussed as potent therapeutics due to efficient transfer of proteins, mRNA and miRNA in selective targets. However, therapeutic exosome application requires knowledge on target structures to avoid undue delivery. Previous work suggesting exosomal tetraspanin-integrin complexes to be involved in target cell binding, we aimed to control this hypothesis and to define target cell ligands. Exosomes are rich in tetraspanins that associate besides other molecules with integrins. Co-immunoprecipitation of exosome lysates from rat tumor lines that differ only with respect to Tspan8 and beta4 revealed promiscuity of tetraspanin-integrin associations, but also few preferential interactions like that of Tspan8 with alpha4 and beta4 integrin chains. These minor differences in exosomal tetraspanin-complexes strongly influence target cell selection in vitro and in vivo, efficient exosome-uptake being seen in hematopoietic cells and solid organs. Exosomes expressing the Tspan8-alpha4 complex are most readily taken up by endothelial and pancreas cells, CD54 serving as a major ligand. Selectivity of uptake was confirmed with exosomes from an alpha4 cDNA transfected Tspan8(+) lymph node stroma line. Distinct from exosomes from the parental line, the latter preferentially targeted endothelial cells and in vivo the pancreas. Importantly, pulldown experiments provided strong evidence that exosome-uptake occurs in internalization-prone membrane domains. This is the first report on the exosomal tetraspanin web contributing to target cell selection such that predictions can be made on potential targets, which will facilitate tailoring exosomes for drug delivery.
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Ramirez-Alvarado M, Ward CJ, Huang BQ, Gong X, Hogan MC, Madden BJ, Charlesworth MC, Leung N. Differences in immunoglobulin light chain species found in urinary exosomes in light chain amyloidosis (Al). PLoS One 2012; 7:e38061. [PMID: 22723846 PMCID: PMC3377641 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0038061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2012] [Accepted: 05/02/2012] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Renal involvement is a frequent consequence of plasma cell dyscrasias. The most common entities are light chain amyloidosis, monoclonal immunoglobulin deposition disease and myeloma cast nephropathy. Despite a common origin, each condition has its own unique histologic and pathophysiologic characteristic which requires a renal biopsy to distinguish. Recent studies have shown urinary exosomes containing kidney-derived membrane and cytosolic proteins that can be used to probe the proteomics of the entire urinary system from the glomerulus to the bladder. In this study, we analyzed urine exosomes to determine the differences between exosomes from patients with light chain amyloidosis, multiple myeloma, monoclonal gammopathy of undetermined significance, and non-paraproteinemia related kidney disease controls. In patients with light chain amyloidosis, multiple myeloma and monoclonal gammopathy of undetermined significance, immunoreactive proteins corresponding to monomeric light chains were found in exosomes by western blot. In all of the amyloidosis samples with active disease, high molecular weight immunoreactive species corresponding to a decamer were found which were not found in exosomes from the other diseases or in amyloidosis exosomes from patients in remission. Few or no light chains monomeric bands were found in non-paraproteinemia related kidney disease controls. Our results showed that urinary exosomes may have tremendous potential in furthering our understanding of the pathophysiology and diagnosis of plasma cell dyscrasia related kidney diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marina Ramirez-Alvarado
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota, United States of America
- * E-mail: (NL); (MR-A)
| | - Christopher J. Ward
- Division of Nephrology and Hypertension, College of Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota, United States of America
| | - Bing Q. Huang
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, College of Medicine, Mayo Clinic Rochester, Minnesota, United States of America
| | - Xun Gong
- Department of Physiology and Biomedical Engineering, College of Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota, United States of America
| | - Marie C. Hogan
- Division of Nephrology and Hypertension, College of Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota, United States of America
| | - Benjamin J. Madden
- Mayo Proteomics Research Center, College of Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota, United States of America
| | - M. Cristine Charlesworth
- Mayo Proteomics Research Center, College of Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota, United States of America
| | - Nelson Leung
- Division of Nephrology and Hypertension, College of Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota, United States of America
- * E-mail: (NL); (MR-A)
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A brain aggregate model gives new insights into the pathobiology and treatment of prion diseases. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 2012; 71:449-66. [PMID: 22507918 DOI: 10.1097/nen.0b013e3182544680] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Brain aggregates (BrnAggs) derived from fetal mouse brains contain mature neurons and glial cells. We determined that BrnAggs are consistently infected with Rocky Mountain Laboratory scrapie strain prions and produce increasing levels of the pathogenic form of the prion protein (PrP). Their abundant dendrites undergo degeneration shortly after prion infection. Treatment of prion-infected BrnAggs with drugs, such as a γ-secretase inhibitors and quinacrine (Qa), which stop PrP formation and dendritic degeneration, mirrors the results from rodent studies. Because PrP is trafficked into lysosomes by endocytosis and autophagosomes by phagocytosis in neurons of prion strain-infected BrnAggs, we studied the effects of drugs that modulate subcellular trafficking. Rapamycin (Rap), which activates autophagy, markedly increased light-chain 3-II (LC3-II)-positive autophagosomes and cathepsin D-positive lysosomes in BrnAggs but could not eliminate the intracellular PrP within them. Adding Qa to Rap markedly reduced the number of LC3-II-positive autolysosomes. Rap + Qa created a competition between Rap increasing and Qa decreasing LC3-II. Rapamycin + Qa decreased total PrP by 56% compared with that of Qa alone, which reduced PrP by 37% relative to Rap alone. We conclude that the decrease was dominated by the ability of Qa to decrease the formation of PrP. Therefore, BrnAggs provide an efficient in vitro tool for screening drug therapies and studying the complex biology of prions.
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Santa-Maria I, Varghese M, Ksiezak-Reding H, Dzhun A, Wang J, Pasinetti GM. Paired helical filaments from Alzheimer disease brain induce intracellular accumulation of Tau protein in aggresomes. J Biol Chem 2012; 287:20522-33. [PMID: 22496370 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m111.323279] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Abnormal folding of tau protein leads to the generation of paired helical filaments (PHFs) and neurofibrillary tangles, a key neuropathological feature in Alzheimer disease and tauopathies. A specific anatomical pattern of pathological changes developing in the brain suggests that once tau pathology is initiated it propagates between neighboring neuronal cells, possibly spreading along the axonal network. We studied whether PHFs released from degenerating neurons could be taken up by surrounding cells and promote spreading of tau pathology. Neuronal and non-neuronal cells overexpressing green fluorescent protein-tagged tau (GFP-Tau) were treated with isolated fractions of human Alzheimer disease-derived PHFs for 24 h. We found that cells internalized PHFs through an endocytic mechanism and developed intracellular GFP-Tau aggregates with attributes of aggresomes. This was particularly evident by the perinuclear localization of aggregates and redistribution of the vimentin intermediate filament network and retrograde motor protein dynein. Furthermore, the content of Sarkosyl-insoluble tau, a measure of abnormal tau aggregation, increased 3-fold in PHF-treated cells. An exosome-related mechanism did not appear to be involved in the release of GFP-Tau from untreated cells. The evidence that cells can internalize PHFs, leading to formation of aggresome-like bodies, opens new therapeutic avenues to prevent propagation and spreading of tau pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ismael Santa-Maria
- Center of Excellence for Novel Approaches to Neurodiagnostics and Neurotherapeutics, Brain Institute, Center of Excellence for Research in Complementary and Alternative Medicine in Alzheimer's Disease, Department of Neurology, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, New York 10029, USA
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45
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Linden R, Cordeiro Y, Lima LMTR. Allosteric function and dysfunction of the prion protein. Cell Mol Life Sci 2012; 69:1105-24. [PMID: 21984610 PMCID: PMC11114699 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-011-0847-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2011] [Revised: 09/16/2011] [Accepted: 09/20/2011] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs) are neurodegenerative diseases associated with progressive oligo- and multimerization of the prion protein (PrP(C)), its conformational conversion, aggregation and precipitation. We recently proposed that PrP(C) serves as a cell surface scaffold protein for a variety of signaling modules, the effects of which translate into wide-range functional consequences. Here we review evidence for allosteric functions of PrP(C), which constitute a common property of scaffold proteins. The available data suggest that allosteric effects among PrP(C) and its partners are involved in the assembly of multi-component signaling modules at the cell surface, impose upon both physiological and pathological conformational responses of PrP(C), and that allosteric dysfunction of PrP(C) has the potential to entail progressive signal corruption. These properties may be germane both to physiological roles of PrP(C), as well as to the pathogenesis of the TSEs and other degenerative/non-communicable diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rafael Linden
- Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, UFRJ, CCS, Cidade Universitária, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
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46
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Kfoury N, Holmes BB, Jiang H, Holtzman DM, Diamond MI. Trans-cellular propagation of Tau aggregation by fibrillar species. J Biol Chem 2012; 287:19440-51. [PMID: 22461630 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m112.346072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 418] [Impact Index Per Article: 34.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Aggregation of the microtubule associated protein Tau is associated with several neurodegenerative disorders, including Alzheimer disease and frontotemporal dementia. In Alzheimer disease, Tau pathology spreads progressively throughout the brain, possibly along existing neural networks. However, it is still unclear how the propagation of Tau misfolding occurs. Intriguingly, in animal models, vaccine-based therapies have reduced Tau and synuclein pathology by uncertain mechanisms, given that these proteins are intracellular. We have previously speculated that trans-cellular propagation of misfolding could be mediated by a process similar to prion pathogenesis, in which fibrillar Tau aggregates spread pathology from cell to cell. However, there has been little evidence to demonstrate true trans-cellular propagation of Tau misfolding, in which Tau aggregates from one cell directly contact Tau protein in the recipient cell to trigger further aggregation. Here we have observed that intracellular Tau fibrils are directly released into the medium and then taken up by co-cultured cells. Internalized Tau aggregates induce fibrillization of intracellular Tau in these naive recipient cells via direct protein-protein contact that we demonstrate using FRET. Tau aggregation can be amplified across several generations of cells. An anti-Tau monoclonal antibody blocks Tau aggregate propagation by trapping fibrils in the extracellular space and preventing their uptake. Thus, propagation of Tau protein misfolding among cells can be mediated by release and subsequent uptake of fibrils that directly contact native protein in recipient cells. These results support the model of aggregate propagation by templated conformational change and suggest a mechanism for vaccine-based therapies in neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Najla Kfoury
- Department of Neurology, Washington University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, Missouri 63110, USA
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47
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Hasegawa T, Konno M, Baba T, Sugeno N, Kikuchi A, Kobayashi M, Miura E, Tanaka N, Tamai K, Furukawa K, Arai H, Mori F, Wakabayashi K, Aoki M, Itoyama Y, Takeda A. The AAA-ATPase VPS4 regulates extracellular secretion and lysosomal targeting of α-synuclein. PLoS One 2011; 6:e29460. [PMID: 22216284 PMCID: PMC3245276 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0029460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 115] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2011] [Accepted: 11/29/2011] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Many neurodegenerative diseases share a common pathological feature: the deposition of amyloid-like fibrils composed of misfolded proteins. Emerging evidence suggests that these proteins may spread from cell-to-cell and encourage the propagation of neurodegeneration in a prion-like manner. Here, we demonstrated that α-synuclein (αSYN), a principal culprit for Lewy pathology in Parkinson's disease (PD), was present in endosomal compartments and detectably secreted into the extracellular milieu. Unlike prion protein, extracellular αSYN was mainly recovered in the supernatant fraction rather than in exosome-containing pellets from the neuronal culture medium and cerebrospinal fluid. Surprisingly, impaired biogenesis of multivesicular body (MVB), an organelle from which exosomes are derived, by dominant-negative mutant vacuolar protein sorting 4 (VPS4) not only interfered with lysosomal targeting of αSYN but facilitated αSYN secretion. The hypersecretion of αSYN in VPS4-defective cells was efficiently restored by the functional disruption of recycling endosome regulator Rab11a. Furthermore, both brainstem and cortical Lewy bodies in PD were found to be immunoreactive for VPS4. Thus, VPS4, a master regulator of MVB sorting, may serve as a determinant of lysosomal targeting or extracellular secretion of αSYN and thereby contribute to the intercellular propagation of Lewy pathology in PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takafumi Hasegawa
- Division of Neurology, Department of Neuroscience & Sensory Organs, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Miyagi, Japan.
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Ramachandran S, Palanisamy V. Horizontal transfer of RNAs: exosomes as mediators of intercellular communication. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS-RNA 2011; 3:286-93. [PMID: 22012863 DOI: 10.1002/wrna.115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 130] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Multicellular organisms are similar to biological communities, consisting of various cell types; thus, inter-cell communication is critical for the functioning of the whole system that ultimately constitutes a living being. Conventional models of cellular exchange include signaling molecules and direct contact-mediated cell communications. Exosomes, small vesicles originating from an inward budding of the plasma membrane, represent a new avenue for signaling between cells. This interchange is achieved by packaging RNA species into exosomes endowed with specific cell surface-targeting motifs. The delivered RNA molecules are functional, and mRNA can be translated into new proteins, while microRNAs (miRNAs) target host mRNAs in the recipient cell. RNA involved in transmitting information or molecules between cells is called exosomal RNA (esRNA). This review summarizes the characteristics of exosomes, specifically focusing on their role in the horizontal transfer of cellular information.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saraswathi Ramachandran
- Department of Craniofacial Biology, College of Dental Medicine, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, USA
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Batista BS, Eng WS, Pilobello KT, Hendricks-Muñoz KD, Mahal LK. Identification of a conserved glycan signature for microvesicles. J Proteome Res 2011; 10:4624-33. [PMID: 21859146 DOI: 10.1021/pr200434y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 200] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Microvesicles (exosomes) are important mediators of intercellular communication, playing a role in immune regulation, cancer progression, and the spread of infectious agents. The biological functions of these small vesicles are dependent on their composition, which is regulated by mechanisms that are not well understood. Although numerous proteomic studies of these particles exist, little is known about their glycosylation. Carbohydrates are involved in protein trafficking and cellular recognition. Glycomic analysis may thus provide valuable insights into microvesicle biology. In this study, we analyzed glycosylation patterns of microvesicles derived from a variety of biological sources using lectin microarray technology. Comparison of the microvesicle glycomes with their parent cell membranes revealed both enrichment and depletion of specific glycan epitopes in these particles. These include enrichment in high mannose, polylactosamine, α-2,6 sialic acid, and complex N-linked glycans and exclusion of terminal blood group A and B antigens. The polylactosamine signature derives from distinct glycoprotein cohorts in microvesicles of different origins. Taken together, our data point to the emergence of microvesicles from a specific membrane microdomain, implying a role for glycosylation in microvesicle protein sorting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bianca S Batista
- Institute for Cellular and Molecular Biology, The University of Texas at Austin , 1 University Station, Austin, Texas 78712-0159, United States
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Wang G, Zhou X, Bai Y, Zhang Z, Zhao D. Cellular prion protein released on exosomes from macrophages binds to Hsp70. Acta Biochim Biophys Sin (Shanghai) 2010; 42:345-50. [PMID: 20458448 DOI: 10.1093/abbs/gmq028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Prion diseases are infectious and fatal neurodegenerative disorders. The cellular prion protein (PrP(C)) converting into misfolded isoform of prion protein (PrP(Sc)) is responsible for prion disease infection. Immune system plays an important role in facilitating the spread of prion infections from the periphery to the central nervous system. Macrophages were considered associated with the transportation and replication of PrP(Sc). So, understanding the PrP(C) trafficking in macrophages is important to explore the transport mechanism for PrP(Sc). Here, we isolated exosomes from the culture medium of Ana-1 macrophage cell line and investigated the PrP(C) trafficked by exosomes and the interaction of PrP(C) with Hsp70 in secreted exosomes by western blotting, immunoelectron microscopy, and co-immunoprecipitation. The results showed that the isolated vesicles from the culture medium of macrophages were characterized by exosomes and bore PrP(C). And PrP(C) bound to Hsp70 both in intracellular environment and secreted exosomes. In contrast, PrP(C) had no interaction with marker proteins of exosomes, Tag101 and Flotillin-1. These results suggested that PrP(C) present in extracellular space might be externalized through secreted exosomes from macrophages, and Hsp70 may play roles in the process of PrP(C) released via secreted exosomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guihua Wang
- National Animal Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathy Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
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