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de Vries E, Tscherne DM, Wienholts MJ, Cobos-Jiménez V, Scholte F, García-Sastre A, Rottier PJM, de Haan CAM. Dissection of the influenza A virus endocytic routes reveals macropinocytosis as an alternative entry pathway. PLoS Pathog 2011; 7:e1001329. [PMID: 21483486 PMCID: PMC3068995 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1001329] [Citation(s) in RCA: 241] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2010] [Accepted: 03/02/2011] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Influenza A virus (IAV) enters host cells upon binding of its hemagglutinin glycoprotein to sialylated host cell receptors. Whereas dynamin-dependent, clathrin-mediated endocytosis (CME) is generally considered as the IAV infection pathway, some observations suggest the occurrence of an as yet uncharacterized alternative entry route. By manipulating entry parameters we established experimental conditions that allow the separate analysis of dynamin-dependent and -independent entry of IAV. Whereas entry of IAV in phosphate-buffered saline could be completely inhibited by dynasore, a specific inhibitor of dynamin, a dynasore-insensitive entry pathway became functional in the presence of fetal calf serum. This finding was confirmed with the use of small interfering RNAs targeting dynamin-2. In the presence of serum, both IAV entry pathways were operational. Under these conditions entry could be fully blocked by combined treatment with dynasore and the amiloride derivative EIPA, the hallmark inhibitor of macropinocytosis, whereas either drug alone had no effect. The sensitivity of the dynamin-independent entry pathway to inhibitors or dominant-negative mutants affecting actomyosin dynamics as well as to a number of specific inhibitors of growth factor receptor tyrosine kinases and downstream effectors thereof all point to the involvement of macropinocytosis in IAV entry. Consistently, IAV particles and soluble FITC-dextran were shown to co-localize in cells in the same vesicles. Thus, in addition to the classical dynamin-dependent, clathrin-mediated endocytosis pathway, IAV enters host cells by a dynamin-independent route that has all the characteristics of macropinocytosis. Attachment to and entry into a host cell are the first crucial steps in establishing a successful virus infection and critical factors in determining host cell and species tropism. Influenza A virus (IAV) attaches to host cells by binding of its major surface protein, hemagglutinin, to sialic acids that are omnipresent on the glycolipids and glycoproteins exposed on the surfaces of cells. IAV subsequently enters cells of birds and a wide variety of mammals via receptor-mediated endocytosis using clathrin as well as via (an) alternative uncharacterized route(s). The elucidation of the endocytic pathways taken by IAV has been hampered by their apparent redundancy in establishing a productive infection. By manipulating the entry conditions we have established experimental settings that allow the separate analysis of dynamin-dependent (including clathrin-mediated endocytosis) and independent entry of IAV. Collectively, our results indicate macropinocytosis, the main route for the non-selective uptake of extracellular fluid by cells, as an alternative IAV entry route. As the dynamin-dependent and -independent IAV entry routes are redundant and independent, their separate manipulation was crucial for the identification and characterization of the alternative IAV entry route. A similar strategy might be applicable to the study of endocytic pathways taken by other viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erik de Vries
- Virology Division, Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Donna M. Tscherne
- Department of Microbiology, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, United States of America
| | - Marleen J. Wienholts
- Virology Division, Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Viviana Cobos-Jiménez
- Virology Division, Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Florine Scholte
- Virology Division, Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Adolfo García-Sastre
- Department of Microbiology, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, United States of America
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, United States of America
- Global Health and Emerging Pathogens Institute, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, United States of America
| | - Peter J. M. Rottier
- Virology Division, Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Cornelis A. M. de Haan
- Virology Division, Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
- * E-mail:
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Bridge DR, Novotny MJ, Moore ER, Olson JC. Role of host cell polarity and leading edge properties in Pseudomonas type III secretion. MICROBIOLOGY-SGM 2009; 156:356-373. [PMID: 19910414 DOI: 10.1099/mic.0.033241-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Type III secretion (T3S) functions in establishing infections in a large number of Gram-negative bacteria, yet little is known about how host cell properties might function in this process. We used the opportunistic pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa and the ability to alter host cell sensitivity to Pseudomonas T3S to explore this problem. HT-29 epithelial cells were used to study cellular changes associated with loss of T3S sensitivity, which could be induced by treatment with methyl-beta-cyclodextrin or perfringolysin O. HL-60 promyelocytic cells are innately resistant to Pseudomonas T3S and were used to study cellular changes occurring in response to induction of T3S sensitivity, which occurred following treatment with phorbol esters. Using both cell models, a positive correlation was observed between eukaryotic cell adherence to tissue culture wells and T3S sensitivity. In examining the type of adhesion process linked to T3S sensitivity in HT-29 cells, a hierarchical order of protein involvement was identified that paralleled the architecture of leading edge (LE) focal complexes. Conversely, in HL-60 cells, induction of T3S sensitivity coincided with the onset of LE properties and the development of actin-rich projections associated with polarized cell migration. When LE architecture was examined by immunofluorescent staining for actin, Rac1, IQ-motif-containing GTPase-activating protein 1 (IQGAP1) and phosphatidylinositol 3 kinase (PI3 kinase), intact LE structure was found to closely correlate with host cell sensitivity to P. aeruginosa T3S. Our model for host cell involvement in Pseudomonas T3S proposes that cortical actin polymerization at the LE alters membrane properties to favour T3S translocon function and the establishment of infections, which is consistent with Pseudomonas infections targeting wounded epithelial barriers undergoing cell migration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dacie R Bridge
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Cell Biology, West Virginia University Health Sciences Center, Morgantown, WV 26506-9177, USA
| | - Matthew J Novotny
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Cell Biology, West Virginia University Health Sciences Center, Morgantown, WV 26506-9177, USA
| | - Elizabeth R Moore
- Laboratory of Intracellular Parasites, NIAID, Rocky Mountain Laboratories, Hamilton, MT 59840, USA
| | - Joan C Olson
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Cell Biology, West Virginia University Health Sciences Center, Morgantown, WV 26506-9177, USA
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Malyukova I, Murray KF, Zhu C, Boedeker E, Kane A, Patterson K, Peterson JR, Donowitz M, Kovbasnjuk O. Macropinocytosis in Shiga toxin 1 uptake by human intestinal epithelial cells and transcellular transcytosis. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2009; 296:G78-92. [PMID: 18974311 PMCID: PMC2636932 DOI: 10.1152/ajpgi.90347.2008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Shiga toxin 1 and 2 production is a cardinal virulence trait of enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli infection that causes a spectrum of intestinal and systemic pathology. However, intestinal sites of enterohemorrhagic E. coli colonization during the human infection and how the Shiga toxins are taken up and cross the globotriaosylceramide (Gb3) receptor-negative intestinal epithelial cells remain largely uncharacterized. We used samples of human intestinal tissue from patients with E. coli O157:H7 infection to detect the intestinal sites of bacterial colonization and characterize the distribution of Shiga toxins. We further used a model of largely Gb3-negative T84 intestinal epithelial monolayers treated with B-subunit of Shiga toxin 1 to determine the mechanisms of non-receptor-mediated toxin uptake. We now report that E. coli O157:H7 were found at the apical surface of epithelial cells only in the ileocecal valve area and that both toxins were present in large amounts inside surface and crypt epithelial cells in all tested intestinal samples. Our in vitro data suggest that macropinocytosis mediated through Src activation significantly increases toxin endocytosis by intestinal epithelial cells and also stimulates toxin transcellular transcytosis. We conclude that Shiga toxin is taken up by human intestinal epithelial cells during E. coli O157:H7 infection regardless of the presence of bacterial colonies. Macropinocytosis might be responsible for toxin uptake by Gb3-free intestinal epithelial cells and transcytosis. These observations provide new insights into the understanding of Shiga toxin contribution to enterohemorrhagic E. coli-related intestinal and systemic diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irina Malyukova
- Department of Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland; Department of Pediatrics, Division of Gastroenterology and Nutrition, Children's Hospital and Regional Medical Center, Seattle, Washington; Department of Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, Albuquerque, New Mexico; Division of Geographic Medicine/Infectious Diseases, Tufts Medical Center, Boston, Massachusetts; Department of Pathology, Children's Hospital and Regional Medical Center, Seattle, Washington; and Fox Chase Cancer Center, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Karen F. Murray
- Department of Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland; Department of Pediatrics, Division of Gastroenterology and Nutrition, Children's Hospital and Regional Medical Center, Seattle, Washington; Department of Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, Albuquerque, New Mexico; Division of Geographic Medicine/Infectious Diseases, Tufts Medical Center, Boston, Massachusetts; Department of Pathology, Children's Hospital and Regional Medical Center, Seattle, Washington; and Fox Chase Cancer Center, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Chengru Zhu
- Department of Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland; Department of Pediatrics, Division of Gastroenterology and Nutrition, Children's Hospital and Regional Medical Center, Seattle, Washington; Department of Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, Albuquerque, New Mexico; Division of Geographic Medicine/Infectious Diseases, Tufts Medical Center, Boston, Massachusetts; Department of Pathology, Children's Hospital and Regional Medical Center, Seattle, Washington; and Fox Chase Cancer Center, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Edgar Boedeker
- Department of Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland; Department of Pediatrics, Division of Gastroenterology and Nutrition, Children's Hospital and Regional Medical Center, Seattle, Washington; Department of Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, Albuquerque, New Mexico; Division of Geographic Medicine/Infectious Diseases, Tufts Medical Center, Boston, Massachusetts; Department of Pathology, Children's Hospital and Regional Medical Center, Seattle, Washington; and Fox Chase Cancer Center, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Anne Kane
- Department of Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland; Department of Pediatrics, Division of Gastroenterology and Nutrition, Children's Hospital and Regional Medical Center, Seattle, Washington; Department of Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, Albuquerque, New Mexico; Division of Geographic Medicine/Infectious Diseases, Tufts Medical Center, Boston, Massachusetts; Department of Pathology, Children's Hospital and Regional Medical Center, Seattle, Washington; and Fox Chase Cancer Center, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Kathleen Patterson
- Department of Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland; Department of Pediatrics, Division of Gastroenterology and Nutrition, Children's Hospital and Regional Medical Center, Seattle, Washington; Department of Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, Albuquerque, New Mexico; Division of Geographic Medicine/Infectious Diseases, Tufts Medical Center, Boston, Massachusetts; Department of Pathology, Children's Hospital and Regional Medical Center, Seattle, Washington; and Fox Chase Cancer Center, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Jeffrey R. Peterson
- Department of Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland; Department of Pediatrics, Division of Gastroenterology and Nutrition, Children's Hospital and Regional Medical Center, Seattle, Washington; Department of Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, Albuquerque, New Mexico; Division of Geographic Medicine/Infectious Diseases, Tufts Medical Center, Boston, Massachusetts; Department of Pathology, Children's Hospital and Regional Medical Center, Seattle, Washington; and Fox Chase Cancer Center, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Mark Donowitz
- Department of Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland; Department of Pediatrics, Division of Gastroenterology and Nutrition, Children's Hospital and Regional Medical Center, Seattle, Washington; Department of Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, Albuquerque, New Mexico; Division of Geographic Medicine/Infectious Diseases, Tufts Medical Center, Boston, Massachusetts; Department of Pathology, Children's Hospital and Regional Medical Center, Seattle, Washington; and Fox Chase Cancer Center, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Olga Kovbasnjuk
- Department of Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland; Department of Pediatrics, Division of Gastroenterology and Nutrition, Children's Hospital and Regional Medical Center, Seattle, Washington; Department of Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, Albuquerque, New Mexico; Division of Geographic Medicine/Infectious Diseases, Tufts Medical Center, Boston, Massachusetts; Department of Pathology, Children's Hospital and Regional Medical Center, Seattle, Washington; and Fox Chase Cancer Center, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
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