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Figueroa-Villar JD, Petronilho EC, Kuca K, Franca TCC. Review about Structure and Evaluation of Reactivators of Acetylcholinesterase Inhibited with Neurotoxic Organophosphorus Compounds. Curr Med Chem 2021; 28:1422-1442. [PMID: 32334495 DOI: 10.2174/0929867327666200425213215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2019] [Revised: 03/08/2020] [Accepted: 04/01/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Neurotoxic chemical warfare agents can be classified as some of the most dangerous chemicals for humanity. The most effective of those agents are the Organophosphates (OPs) capable of restricting the enzyme Acetylcholinesterase (AChE), which in turn, controls the nerve impulse transmission. When AChE is inhibited by OPs, its reactivation can be usually performed through cationic oximes. However, until today, it has not been developed one universal defense agent, with complete effective reactivation activity for AChE inhibited by any of the many types of existing neurotoxic OPs. For this reason, before treating people intoxicated by an OP, it is necessary to determine the neurotoxic compound that was used for contamination, in order to select the most effective oxime. Unfortunately, this task usually requires a relatively long time, raising the possibility of death. Cationic oximes also display a limited capacity of permeating the Blood-Brain Barrier (BBB). This fact compromises their capacity to reactivating AChE inside the nervous system. METHODS We performed a comprehensive search on the data about OPs available on the scientific literature today in order to cover all the main drawbacks still faced in the research for the development of effective antidotes against those compounds. RESULTS Therefore, this review about neurotoxic OPs and the reactivation of AChE, provides insights for the new agents' development. The most expected defense agent is a molecule without toxicity and effective to reactivate AChE inhibited by all neurotoxic OPs. CONCLUSION To develop these new agents, the application of diverse scientific areas of research, especially theoretical procedures as computational science (computer simulation, docking and dynamics), organic synthesis, spectroscopic methodologies, biology, biochemical and biophysical information, medicinal chemistry, pharmacology and toxicology, is necessary.
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Affiliation(s)
- José Daniel Figueroa-Villar
- Medicinal Chemistry Group, Department of Chemical Engineering, Military Institute of Engineering, 22270- 090, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Elaine C Petronilho
- Medicinal Chemistry Group, Department of Chemical Engineering, Military Institute of Engineering, 22270- 090, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Kamil Kuca
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Hradec Kralove, Hradec Králové 50003, Czech Republic
| | - Tanos C C Franca
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Hradec Kralove, Hradec Králové 50003, Czech Republic
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Worek F, Thiermann H, Wille T. The oximes HI-6 and MMB-4 fail to reactivate soman-inhibited human and guinea pig AChE: A kinetic in vitro study. Toxicol Lett 2017; 293:216-221. [PMID: 28993240 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2017.10.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2017] [Revised: 09/26/2017] [Accepted: 10/04/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibited by the organophosphorus nerve (OP) agent soman underlies a spontaneous and extremely rapid dealkylation ("aging") reaction which prevents reactivation by oximes. However, in vivo studies in various, soman poisoned animal species showed a therapeutic effect of oximes, with the exact mechanism of this effect remaining still unclear. In order to get more insight and a basis for the extrapolation of animal data to humans, we applied a dynamic in vitro model with continuous online determination of AChE activity. This model allows to simulate the in vivo toxico- and pharmacokinetics between human and guinea pig AChE with soman and the oximes HI-6 and MMB-4 in order to unravel the species dependent kinetic interactions. It turned out that only HI-6 was able to slow down the ongoing inhibition of human AChE by soman without preventing final complete inhibition of the enzyme. Continuous perfusion of AChE with soman and simultaneous or delayed (8, 15 or 40min) oxime perfusion did not result in a relevant reactivation of AChE (less than 2%). In conclusion, the results of the present study indicate a negligible reactivation of soman-inhibited AChE by oximes at conditions simulating the in vivo poisoning by soman. The observed therapeutic effect of oximes in soman poisoned animals in vivo must be attributed to alternative mechanisms which may not be relevant in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Franz Worek
- Bundeswehr Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Munich, Germany.
| | - Horst Thiermann
- Bundeswehr Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Munich, Germany
| | - Timo Wille
- Bundeswehr Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Munich, Germany
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Plaschke K, Petersen KA, Frankenhauser S, Weigand MA, Kopitz J, Bardenheuer HJ. The Impact of Plasma Cholinergic Enzyme Activity and Other Risk Factors for the Development of Delirium in Patients Receiving Palliative Care. J Pain Symptom Manage 2016; 52:525-532. [PMID: 27401519 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpainsymman.2016.05.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2016] [Revised: 04/01/2016] [Accepted: 05/20/2016] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
CONTEXT Delirium is an important complication in palliative care patients. One of the potential risk factors for cognitive disorders is deterioration in cholinergic neurotransmission. Anticholinergic medications are known to be important owing to the association of their metabolites with significant morbidity, which is often the result of cumulative effects of medications (anticholinergic burden). Additionally, cholinergic enzymes are possible candidates reflecting the cholinergic situation in patients. However, the role of cholinesterases (CHE) for delirium in palliative care patients is unknown. OBJECTIVES Following local Ethics Board approval and written informed consent, we recruited a cohort of patients who had been admitted to the Heidelberg University Palliative Care Unit related to CHE and other factors at risk for delirium. METHODS Delirium was assessed using the Nursing Delirium Screening Scale once daily in all cancer patients (N = 100) during their stay on the palliative care unit. In a subgroup of 69 probes, blood samples were analyzed for acetyl- and butyrylcholinesterase activity spectrophotometrically. Furthermore, patients' medications were recorded. Logistic regression analysis was used to evaluate potential predictors of delirium. RESULTS Delirium was identified in 29% of patients. Karnofsky Performance Status Scale score was significantly lower (P = 0.021) and mortality higher (P = 0.018) in patients with delirium. Plasma CHE activity was not associated with delirium. However, a significant effect of anticholinergic medication on plasma CHE activity was detected; so far midazolam (P = 0.01) seems to play an important role in that process. CONCLUSION Special care might be necessary with anticholinergic medication to minimize risk for delirium in palliative cancer patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Konstanze Plaschke
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany.
| | | | | | - Markus A Weigand
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Jürgen Kopitz
- Department of Pathology, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
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Plaschke K, Weigand MA, Fricke F, Kopitz J. Neuroinflammation: effect of surgical stress compared to anaesthesia and effect of physostigmine. Neurol Res 2016; 38:397-405. [DOI: 10.1080/01616412.2016.1173889] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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Application of a dynamic in vitro model with real-time determination of acetylcholinesterase activity for the investigation of tabun analogues and oximes. Toxicol In Vitro 2015; 30:514-20. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2015.09.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2015] [Revised: 08/22/2015] [Accepted: 09/01/2015] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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Worek F, Horn G, Wille T, Thiermann H. Adaptation of a dynamic in vitro model with real-time determination of butyrylcholinesterase activity in the presence of cyclosarin and an oxime. Toxicol In Vitro 2015; 29:162-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2014.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2014] [Revised: 09/29/2014] [Accepted: 10/06/2014] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
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Colin P, De Smet L, De Bock L, Goeteyn W, Boussery K, Vervaet C, Van Bocxlaer J. Enzymatic tumour tissue digestion coupled to SPE–UPLC–Tandem Mass Spectrometry as a tool to explore paclitaxel tumour penetration. Talanta 2014; 129:119-25. [DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2014.05.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2014] [Revised: 05/13/2014] [Accepted: 05/18/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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Holas O, Musilek K, Pohanka M, Kuca K. The progress in the cholinesterase quantification methods. Expert Opin Drug Discov 2012; 7:1207-23. [DOI: 10.1517/17460441.2012.729037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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Herkert NM, Freude G, Kunz U, Thiermann H, Worek F. Comparative kinetics of organophosphates and oximes with erythrocyte, muscle and brain acetylcholinesterase. Toxicol Lett 2012; 209:173-8. [PMID: 22230262 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2011.12.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2011] [Revised: 12/20/2011] [Accepted: 12/23/2011] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
There is an ongoing debate whether oximes can effectively counteract the effects of organophosphorus compounds (OP) on brain acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity and whether there are differences in the kinetic properties of brain and erythrocyte AChE. In order to investigate the kinetics of AChE from different tissues and species the well established dynamically working in vitro model with real-time determination of membrane-bound AChE activity was adapted for use with brain AChE. The enzyme reactor, that was loaded with brain, erythrocyte or muscle AChE, was continuously perfused with substrate and chromogen while AChE activity was on-line analyzed in a flow-through detector. It was possible to determine the Michaelis-Menten constants of human erythrocyte, muscle and brain AChE which were almost identical. In addition, the inhibition kinetics of sarin and paraoxon as well as the reactivation kinetics of obidoxime and HI 6 were determined with human, swine and guinea pig brain and erythrocyte AChE. It was found that the inhibition and reactivation kinetics of brain and erythrocyte AChE were highly comparable in all tested species. These data support the view that AChE from different tissue has similar kinetic properties and that brain AChE is comparably susceptible toward reactivation by oximes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadja M Herkert
- Bundeswehr Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Munich, Germany
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Worek F, Eyer P, Thiermann H. Determination of acetylcholinesterase activity by the Ellman assay: a versatile tool for in vitro research on medical countermeasures against organophosphate poisoning. Drug Test Anal 2011; 4:282-91. [PMID: 21998030 DOI: 10.1002/dta.337] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2011] [Revised: 07/01/2011] [Accepted: 07/05/2011] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Inhibition of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) is the main mechanism of action of organophosphorus compounds (OP), and AChE reactivators (oximes) are at present the only causal therapeutic approach. Being the key target of OP toxicity, AChE may serve as a valuable tool for diagnosis of OP exposure as well as for the investigation of the kinetics of interactions between OP and oximes. At present, the rapid, simple, and cheap spectrophotometric Ellman assay is widely used for diagnosis, therapeutic monitoring and in vitro kinetic investigations. Application of the assay for investigation of the interactions between AChE, inhibitors, and oximes requires the consideration of potential matrix effects (e.g. hemoglobin), side reactions (e.g. oximolysis of substrate) and other determinants (e.g. pH, temperature). By taking these factors into account, the Ellman assay allows the precise and reproducible determination of kinetic constants as a basis for the understanding of toxic OP effects and for the development of improved therapies against poisoning by OP. In addition, advanced applications of the Ellman assay, for example, in a dynamic in vitro model for the real-time activity determination of membrane-bound AChE, enables the proper investigation of relevant tissue, primarily respiratory muscle, and extends the applicability of this method.
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Affiliation(s)
- Franz Worek
- Bundeswehr Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Neuherbergstrasse 11, Munich, Germany.
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Seeger T, Niessen K, Langer P, Gerhardus J, Worek F, Friess H, Bumm R, Mihaljevic A, Thiermann H. Restoration of nerve agent inhibited muscle force production in human intercostal muscle strips with HI 6. Toxicol Lett 2011; 206:72-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2011.07.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2011] [Revised: 06/21/2011] [Accepted: 07/15/2011] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
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Saint-André G, Kliachyna M, Kodepelly S, Louise-Leriche L, Gillon E, Renard PY, Nachon F, Baati R, Wagner A. Design, synthesis and evaluation of new α-nucleophiles for the hydrolysis of organophosphorus nerve agents: application to the reactivation of phosphorylated acetylcholinesterase. Tetrahedron 2011. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tet.2011.05.130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
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13
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Herkert N, Schulz S, Wille T, Thiermann H, Hatz R, Worek F. Pre- and post-treatment effect of physostigmine on soman-inhibited human erythrocyte and muscle acetylcholinesterase in vitro. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2011; 253:7-13. [DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2011.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2011] [Revised: 03/04/2011] [Accepted: 03/06/2011] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Herkert NM, Thiermann H, Worek F. In vitro kinetic interactions of pyridostigmine, physostigmine and soman with erythrocyte and muscle acetylcholinesterase from different species. Toxicol Lett 2011; 206:41-6. [PMID: 21414391 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2011.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2011] [Accepted: 03/02/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
The low effectiveness of atropine and oxime treatment in soman poisoning may be enhanced by carbamates pre-treatment. For ethical reasons medical countermeasures can only be tested in animal models despite the fact of substantial species differences. With this kinetic in vitro study the interactions between pyridostigmine, physostigmine and soman with human, Rhesus monkey, swine and guinea pig erythrocyte AChE were investigated. In addition, the effect of the carbamates on the residual activity and enzyme recovery after soman inhibition was examined with erythrocyte and intercostal muscle AChE from these species with a dynamic in vitro model with real-time determination of AChE activity. Only small to moderate species differences of the inhibition and decarbamylation kinetics were recorded. It was possible to show that with erythrocyte and muscle AChE a similar level of protection by carbamates and reactivation after discontinuation of the carbamates and soman could be observed. Thus, these data indicate that carbamate pre-treatment is expected to protect a critical level of muscle AChE and confirm the presumption that erythrocyte AChE may serve as a surrogate for synaptic AChE. Hence, these and previous data fortify the notion that erythrocyte AChE is a proper tool for in vitro kinetic studies as well as for therapeutic monitoring in experimental and clinical studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- N M Herkert
- Bundeswehr Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Neuherbergstrasse 11, 80937 Munich, Germany
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Thiermann H, Seeger T, Gonder S, Herkert N, Antkowiak B, Zilker T, Eyer F, Worek F. Assessment of neuromuscular dysfunction during poisoning by organophosphorus compounds. Chem Biol Interact 2010; 187:265-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cbi.2009.12.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2009] [Revised: 12/17/2009] [Accepted: 12/21/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Worek F, Aurbek N, Wille T, Eyer P, Thiermann H. Kinetic prerequisites of oximes as effective reactivators of organophosphate-inhibited acetylcholinesterase: a theoretical approach. J Enzyme Inhib Med Chem 2010; 26:303-8. [DOI: 10.3109/14756366.2010.504673] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Franz Worek
- Bundeswehr Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Munich, Germany
| | - Nadine Aurbek
- Bundeswehr Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Munich, Germany
| | - Timo Wille
- Bundeswehr Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Munich, Germany
| | - Peter Eyer
- Walther-Straub-Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, Munich, Germany
| | - Horst Thiermann
- Bundeswehr Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Munich, Germany
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Muscle force and acetylcholinesterase activity in mouse hemidiaphragms exposed to paraoxon and treated by oximes in vitro. Toxicology 2010; 272:46-51. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2010.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2010] [Revised: 03/15/2010] [Accepted: 04/03/2010] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Herkert NM, Aurbek N, Eyer P, Thiermann H, Worek F. Comparative study of oxime-induced reactivation of erythrocyte and muscle AChE from different animal species following inhibition by sarin or paraoxon. Toxicol Lett 2010; 194:94-101. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2010.02.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2009] [Revised: 02/05/2010] [Accepted: 02/05/2010] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Louise-Leriche L, Pǎunescu E, Saint-André G, Baati R, Romieu A, Wagner A, Renard PY. A HTS Assay for the Detection of Organophosphorus Nerve Agent Scavengers. Chemistry 2010; 16:3510-23. [DOI: 10.1002/chem.200902986] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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20
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Monitoring of neuromuscular transmission in organophosphate pesticide-poisoned patients. Toxicol Lett 2009; 191:297-304. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2009.09.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2009] [Revised: 09/18/2009] [Accepted: 09/21/2009] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Worek F, Aurbek N, Herkert NM, John H, Eddleston M, Eyer P, Thiermann H. Evaluation of medical countermeasures against organophosphorus compounds: the value of experimental data and computer simulations. Chem Biol Interact 2009; 187:259-64. [PMID: 19917271 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbi.2009.11.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2009] [Revised: 11/07/2009] [Accepted: 11/09/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Despite extensive research for more than six decades on medical countermeasures against poisoning by organophosphorus compounds (OP) the treatment options are meagre. The presently established acetylcholinesterase (AChE) reactivators (oximes), e.g. obidoxime and pralidoxime, are insufficient against a number of nerve agents and there is ongoing debate on the benefit of oxime treatment in human OP pesticide poisoning. Up to now, the therapeutic efficacy of oximes was mostly evaluated in animal models but substantial species differences prevent direct extrapolation of animal data to humans. Hence, it was considered essential to establish relevant experimental in vitro models for the investigation of oximes as antidotes and to develop computer models for the simulation of oxime efficacy in different scenarios of OP poisoning. Kinetic studies on the various interactions between erythrocyte AChE from various species, structurally different OP and different oximes provided a basis for the initial assessment of the ability of oximes to reactivate inhibited AChE. In the present study, in vitro enzyme-kinetic and pharmacokinetic data from a minipig model of dimethoate poisoning and oxime treatment were used to calculate dynamic changes of AChE activities. It could be shown that there is a close agreement between calculated and in vivo AChE activities. Moreover, computer simulations provided insight into the potential and limitations of oxime treatment. In the end, such data may be a versatile tool for the ongoing discussion of the pros and cons of oxime treatment in human OP pesticide poisoning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Franz Worek
- Bundeswehr Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Munich, Germany.
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Aurbek N, Thiermann H, Eyer F, Eyer P, Worek F. Suitability of human butyrylcholinesterase as therapeutic marker and pseudo catalytic scavenger in organophosphate poisoning: A kinetic analysis. Toxicology 2009; 259:133-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2009.02.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2009] [Revised: 02/20/2009] [Accepted: 02/20/2009] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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Identical kinetics of human erythrocyte and muscle acetylcholinesterase with respect to carbamate pre-treatment, residual activity upon soman challenge and spontaneous reactivation after withdrawal of the inhibitors. Toxicology 2008; 246:188-92. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2008.01.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2007] [Revised: 01/10/2008] [Accepted: 01/11/2008] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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