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Nagy NA, de Haas AM, Geijtenbeek TBH, van Ree R, Tas SW, van Kooyk Y, de Jong EC. Therapeutic Liposomal Vaccines for Dendritic Cell Activation or Tolerance. Front Immunol 2021; 12:674048. [PMID: 34054859 PMCID: PMC8155586 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.674048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2021] [Accepted: 04/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Dendritic cells (DCs) are paramount in initiating and guiding immunity towards a state of activation or tolerance. This bidirectional capacity of DCs sets them at the center stage for treatment of cancer and autoimmune or allergic conditions. Accordingly, many clinical studies use ex vivo DC vaccination as a strategy to boost anti-tumor immunity or to suppress immunity by including vitamin D3, NF-κB inhibitors or retinoic acid to create tolerogenic DCs. As harvesting DCs from patients and differentiating these cells in vitro is a costly and cumbersome process, in vivo targeting of DCs has huge potential as nanoparticulate platforms equipped with activating or tolerogenic adjuvants can modulate DCs in their natural environment. There is a rapid expansion of the choices of nanoparticles and activation- or tolerance-promoting adjuvants for a therapeutic vaccine platform. In this review we highlight the most recent nanomedical approaches aimed at inducing immune activation or tolerance via targeting DCs, together with novel fundamental insights into the mechanisms inherent to fostering anti-tumor or tolerogenic immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noémi Anna Nagy
- Department of Experimental Immunology, Amsterdam University Medical Center, Amsterdam Institute for Infection and Immunity, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Aram M. de Haas
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology and Immunology, Amsterdam University Medical Center, Cancer Center Amsterdam, Amsterdam Institute for Infection and Immunity, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Teunis B. H. Geijtenbeek
- Department of Experimental Immunology, Amsterdam University Medical Center, Amsterdam Institute for Infection and Immunity, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Ronald van Ree
- Department of Experimental Immunology, Amsterdam University Medical Center, Amsterdam Institute for Infection and Immunity, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Amsterdam University Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Sander W. Tas
- Department of Experimental Immunology, Amsterdam University Medical Center, Amsterdam Institute for Infection and Immunity, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
- Department of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, Amsterdam University Medical Center, Amsterdam Rheumatology and Immunology Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Yvette van Kooyk
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology and Immunology, Amsterdam University Medical Center, Cancer Center Amsterdam, Amsterdam Institute for Infection and Immunity, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Esther C. de Jong
- Department of Experimental Immunology, Amsterdam University Medical Center, Amsterdam Institute for Infection and Immunity, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
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2
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Effects of lipid composition in cationic liposomes on suppression of mast cell activation. Chem Phys Lipids 2020; 231:104948. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chemphyslip.2020.104948] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2020] [Revised: 07/08/2020] [Accepted: 07/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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Azadi Y, Ahmadpour E, Ahmadi A. Targeting Strategies in Therapeutic Applications of Toxoplasmosis: Recent Advances in Liposomal Vaccine Delivery Systems. Curr Drug Targets 2020; 21:541-558. [DOI: 10.2174/1389450120666191023151423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2019] [Revised: 10/10/2019] [Accepted: 10/15/2019] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii is a prevalent parasitic pathogen that infected over one-third of the global population. Toxoplasmosis is diagnosed by isolating the parasite and detecting host antibodies. In contrast, the main problem with diagnosis relates to the sensitivity and specificity of the tests. Currently, treatment with pyrimethamine and sulfadiazine is recommended, despite their side effects and toxicity to humans. Moreover, the absence of a vaccine to completely protect against this infection is the main obstacle to the effective treatment and prevention of toxoplasmosis. Recently, nanoparticles and nanomaterials have been studied as delivery systems for the immunization and treatment of T. gondii infections. One of the most important applications of liposomes is drug and vaccine delivery, due to their biodegradability, low inherent toxicity, and immunogenicity. Liposomes are flexible delivery systems and immunological adjuvants able not only to load diverse antigens, such as proteins, peptides, nucleic acids, and carbohydrates but also to combine them with immunostimulators. Liposomes have the incredible potential within the development of modern types of vaccines and numerous endeavors have been made to improve the effectiveness of vaccines in recent years. In this review, we concentrate on the viable targeting strategies of liposome-based vaccine delivery systems to prevent, control and treat toxoplasmosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yaghob Azadi
- Infectious and Tropical Disease Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Ehsan Ahmadpour
- Infectious and Tropical Disease Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Amirhossein Ahmadi
- Pharmaceutical Sciences Research Center, Faculty of Pharmacy, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran
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Inoh Y, Tsuchiya Y, Nakanishi Y, Yokawa S, Furuno T. Involvement of intracellular caveolin-1 distribution in the suppression of antigen-induced mast cell activation by cationic liposomes. Cell Biol Int 2020; 44:1068-1075. [PMID: 31889352 DOI: 10.1002/cbin.11297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2019] [Accepted: 12/28/2019] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Cationic liposomes are commonly used as vectors to effectively introduce foreign genes into target cells. In another function, we recently showed that cationic liposomes bound to the mast cell surface suppress the degranulation induced by the cross-linking of high-affinity immunoglobulin E receptor in a time- and dose-dependent manner. This suppression is mediated by the impairment of the sustained level of intracellular Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+ ]i ) via the inhibition of store-operated Ca2+ entry. Further, we revealed that the mechanism underlying an impaired [Ca2+ ]i increase is the inhibition of the activation of the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)-Akt pathway. Yet, how cationic liposomes inhibit the PI3K-Akt pathway is still unclear. Here, we focused on caveolin-1, a major component of caveolae, which is reported to be involved in the activation of the PI3K-Akt pathway in various cell lines. In this study, we showed that caveolin-1 translocated from the cytoplasm to the plasma membrane after the activation of mast cells and colocalized with the p85 subunit of PI3K, which seemed to be essential for PI3K activity. Meanwhile, cationic liposomes suppressed the translocation of caveolin-1 to the plasma membrane and the colocalization of caveolin-1 with PI3K p85 also at the plasma membrane. This finding provides new information for the development of therapies using cationic liposomes against allergies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoshikazu Inoh
- School of Pharmacy, Aichi Gakuin University, 1-100 Kusumoto-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya, 464-8650, Japan
| | - Yuuki Tsuchiya
- School of Pharmacy, Aichi Gakuin University, 1-100 Kusumoto-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya, 464-8650, Japan
| | - Yokiko Nakanishi
- School of Pharmacy, Aichi Gakuin University, 1-100 Kusumoto-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya, 464-8650, Japan
| | - Satoru Yokawa
- School of Pharmacy, Aichi Gakuin University, 1-100 Kusumoto-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya, 464-8650, Japan
| | - Tadahide Furuno
- School of Pharmacy, Aichi Gakuin University, 1-100 Kusumoto-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya, 464-8650, Japan
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Kratzer B, Hofer S, Zabel M, Pickl WF. All the small things: How virus-like particles and liposomes modulate allergic immune responses. Eur J Immunol 2019; 50:17-32. [PMID: 31799700 PMCID: PMC6973265 DOI: 10.1002/eji.201847810] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2019] [Revised: 10/15/2019] [Accepted: 12/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Recent years have seen a dramatic increase in the range of applications of virus‐like nanoparticle (VNP)‐ and liposome‐based antigen delivery systems for the treatment of allergies. These platforms rely on a growing number of inert virus‐backbones or distinct lipid formulations and intend to engage the host's innate and/or adaptive immune system by virtue of their co‐delivered immunogens. Due to their particulate nature, VNP and liposomal preparations are also capable of breaking tolerance against endogenous cytokines, Igs, and their receptors, allowing for the facile induction of anti‐cytokine, anti‐IgE, or anti‐FcεR antibodies in the host. We here discuss the “pros and cons” of inducing such neutralizing autoantibodies. Moreover, we cover another major theme of the last years, i.e., the engineering of non‐anaphylactogenic particles and the elucidation of the parameters relevant for the specific trafficking and processing of such particles in vivo. Finally, we put the various technical advances in VNP‐ and liposome‐research into (pre‐)clinical context by referring and critically discussing the relevant studies performed to treat allergic diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bernhard Kratzer
- Institute of Immunology, Center for Pathophysiology, Infectiology and Immunology, Medical University of Vienna, Austria
| | - Sandra Hofer
- Institute of Immunology, Center for Pathophysiology, Infectiology and Immunology, Medical University of Vienna, Austria
| | - Maja Zabel
- Institute of Immunology, Center for Pathophysiology, Infectiology and Immunology, Medical University of Vienna, Austria
| | - Winfried F Pickl
- Institute of Immunology, Center for Pathophysiology, Infectiology and Immunology, Medical University of Vienna, Austria
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Shiki A, Inoh Y, Yokawa S, Furuno T. Inhibition of degranulation in mast cells attached to a hydrogel through defective microtubule tracts. Exp Cell Res 2019; 381:248-255. [PMID: 31112735 DOI: 10.1016/j.yexcr.2019.05.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2019] [Revised: 05/13/2019] [Accepted: 05/15/2019] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Mast cells (MCs) are important effectors of the immediate allergic response. MCs are distributed throughout various tissues and organs, and adhere to extracellular matrix (ECM) with broad stiffness in the body. Here we compared cellular responses following antigen stimulation in MCs on glass-base dishes with and without a hydrogel. We found that an antigen-induced increase in intracellular Ca2+ concentration was suppressed slightly in cells on hydrogel-coated dishes compared with those on non-coated dishes, whereas their subsequent degranulation was largely inhibited in cells adherent to the hydrogel. Focusing on focal adhesions (FAs), vinculin was distributed in a dot-like manner at the bottom of resting cells on non-coated dishes but not on hydrogel-coated dishes. According to antigen stimulation, phosphorylation of focal adhesion kinase and additive vinculin accumulation to FAs were promoted in cells on non-coated dishes, but were diminished on hydrogel-coated dishes. Moreover, microtubule reorganization and acetylation (which have important roles in MC degranulation) were also suppressed in activated MCs adherent to the hydrogel. These findings suggest that adhesion to a hydrogel led to failure of composition of functional FAs and microtubule tracts, which resulted in suppression of MC degranulation following antigen stimulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Atsushi Shiki
- School of Pharmacy, Aichi Gakuin University, Nagoya, 464-8650, Japan
| | - Yoshikazu Inoh
- School of Pharmacy, Aichi Gakuin University, Nagoya, 464-8650, Japan
| | - Satoru Yokawa
- School of Pharmacy, Aichi Gakuin University, Nagoya, 464-8650, Japan
| | - Tadahide Furuno
- School of Pharmacy, Aichi Gakuin University, Nagoya, 464-8650, Japan.
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Yu R, Mai Y, Zhao Y, Hou Y, Liu Y, Yang J. Targeting strategies of liposomal subunit vaccine delivery systems to improve vaccine efficacy. J Drug Target 2018; 27:780-789. [PMID: 30589361 DOI: 10.1080/1061186x.2018.1547734] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Liposomes are versatile delivery systems and immunological adjuvants that not only can load various antigens, such as proteins, peptides, nucleic acids and carbohydrates, but also can combine them with immunostimulators. Liposomes have great potential in the development of new types of vaccines, and much effort has been devoted to enhancing vaccine efficacy in recent years. Different types of immune cells such as macrophages and dendritic cells play an important role in the immune response and in preventing or treating cancer, allergy or many other infectious diseases. Targeting liposome-based delivery systems to certain immune cells and organs is one of the most effective measures in such treatments. Extensive research has shown that liposomes combined with immunostimulators or modified with pattern recognition receptor ligands can target various immune cells and the lymphatic system, thus not only inducing and promoting the desired immune response but also decreasing adverse effects throughout the body and avoiding targeting irrelevant cell types or tissues. Therefore, in this review, we outline some targeting strategies that can be adopted in the design of liposomal vaccines to improve vaccine efficacy, and we summarise the related liposome-based vaccine applications in several diseases. These applications have great potential to treat or prevent some infectious and intractable diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rui Yu
- a Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy , Ningxia Medical University , Yinchuan , People's Republic of China
| | - Yaping Mai
- a Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy , Ningxia Medical University , Yinchuan , People's Republic of China
| | - Yue Zhao
- a Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy , Ningxia Medical University , Yinchuan , People's Republic of China
| | - Yanhui Hou
- a Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy , Ningxia Medical University , Yinchuan , People's Republic of China
| | - Yanhua Liu
- a Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy , Ningxia Medical University , Yinchuan , People's Republic of China
| | - Jianhong Yang
- a Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy , Ningxia Medical University , Yinchuan , People's Republic of China
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Inoh Y, Haneda A, Tadokoro S, Yokawa S, Furuno T. Cationic liposomes suppress intracellular calcium ion concentration increase via inhibition of PI3 kinase pathway in mast cells. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-BIOMEMBRANES 2017; 1859:2461-2466. [PMID: 28966111 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamem.2017.09.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2017] [Revised: 09/07/2017] [Accepted: 09/27/2017] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Cationic liposomes are commonly used as vectors to effectively introduce foreign genes (antisense DNA, plasmid DNA, siRNA, etc.) into target cells. Cationic liposomes are also known to affect cellular immunocompetences such as the mast cell function in allergic reactions. In particular, we previously showed that the cationic liposomes bound to the mast cell surface suppress the degranulation induced by cross-linking of high affinity IgE receptors in a time- and dose-dependent manner. This suppression is mediated by impairment of the sustained level of intracellular Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]i) via inhibition of store-operated Ca2+ entry (SOCE). Here we study the mechanism underlying an impaired [Ca2+]i increase by cationic liposomes in mast cells. We show that cationic liposomes inhibit the phosphorylation of Akt and PI3 kinases but not Syk and LAT. As a consequence, SOCE is suppressed but Ca2+ release from endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is not. Cationic liposomes inhibit the formation of STIM1 puncta, which is essential to SOCE by interacting with Orai1 following the Ca2+ concentration decrease in the ER. These data suggest that cationic liposomes suppress SOCE by inhibiting the phosphorylation of PI3 and Akt kinases in mast cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoshikazu Inoh
- School of Pharmacy, Aichi Gakuin University, 1-100 Kusumoto-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya 464-8650, Japan.
| | - Aki Haneda
- School of Pharmacy, Aichi Gakuin University, 1-100 Kusumoto-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya 464-8650, Japan
| | - Satoshi Tadokoro
- Faculty of Pharma Sciences, Teikyo University, 2-11-1 Kaga, Itabashi-ku, Tokyo 173-8605, Japan
| | - Satoru Yokawa
- School of Pharmacy, Aichi Gakuin University, 1-100 Kusumoto-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya 464-8650, Japan
| | - Tadahide Furuno
- School of Pharmacy, Aichi Gakuin University, 1-100 Kusumoto-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya 464-8650, Japan
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Tadokoro S, Shibata T, Inoh Y, Amano T, Nakanishi M, Hirashima N, Utsunomiya-Tate N. Phosphorylation of syntaxin-3 at Thr 14 negatively regulates exocytosis in RBL-2H3 mast cells. Cell Biol Int 2016; 40:589-96. [PMID: 26936588 DOI: 10.1002/cbin.10600] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2015] [Accepted: 02/29/2016] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Recent studies have revealed that soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein receptor (SNARE) proteins interact with each other, forming a SNARE complex that induces exocytosis in mast cells. Previously, we reported that syntaxin-3, a SNARE protein, regulates mast cell exocytosis and is constantly phosphorylated. In this study, we tried to identify the amino acid residue that is phosphorylated in mast cells, and to elucidate the regulatory mechanism of exocytosis by phosphorylation in syntaxin-3. We found that Thr 14 of syntaxin-3 was a phosphorylation site in mast cells. In addition, the overexpression of a constitutively dephosphorylated syntaxin-3 (T14A) mutant enhanced mast cell exocytosis. We also showed that the phosphomimetic mutation of syntaxin-3 at Thr 14 (T14E) induced structural changes in syntaxin-3, and this mutation inhibited binding of syntaxin-3 to Munc18-2. These results suggest that phosphorylated syntaxin-3 at Thr 14 negatively regulates mast cell exocytosis by impairing the interaction between syntaxin-3 and Munc18-2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Satoshi Tadokoro
- Faculty of Pharma Sciences, Teikyo University, 2-11-1 Kaga, Itabashi-ku, Tokyo, 173-8605, Japan.,Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Nagoya City University, 3-1 Tanabe-dori, Mizuho-ku, Nagoya, 467-8603, Japan
| | - Tetsuhiro Shibata
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Nagoya City University, 3-1 Tanabe-dori, Mizuho-ku, Nagoya, 467-8603, Japan
| | - Yoshikazu Inoh
- School of Pharmacy, Aichi Gakuin University, 1-100 Kusumoto-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya, 464-8650, Japan
| | - Toshiro Amano
- Faculty of Pharma Sciences, Teikyo University, 2-11-1 Kaga, Itabashi-ku, Tokyo, 173-8605, Japan
| | - Mamoru Nakanishi
- School of Pharmacy, Aichi Gakuin University, 1-100 Kusumoto-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya, 464-8650, Japan
| | - Naohide Hirashima
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Nagoya City University, 3-1 Tanabe-dori, Mizuho-ku, Nagoya, 467-8603, Japan
| | - Naoko Utsunomiya-Tate
- Faculty of Pharma Sciences, Teikyo University, 2-11-1 Kaga, Itabashi-ku, Tokyo, 173-8605, Japan
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Effects of Cymbidium Root Ethanol Extract on Atopic Dermatitis. EVIDENCE-BASED COMPLEMENTARY AND ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE 2016; 2016:5362475. [PMID: 26981139 PMCID: PMC4766334 DOI: 10.1155/2016/5362475] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2015] [Revised: 01/07/2016] [Accepted: 01/14/2016] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Cymbidium has known antibacterial and antiedema activity and has been used as an ingredient in cosmetics and fragrances. The effects of Cymbidium ethanol extract (CYM) on allergic response and the underlying mechanisms of action have not been reported. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to determine the effect of CYM on allergic responses. Topical application of CYM was effective against immunoglobulin E (IgE)/dinitrophenyl-conjugated bovine serum albumin- (DNP-BSA-) induced degranulation of RBL-2H3 cells and anaphylaxis in ICR mice. An allergic dermatitis-like mouse model was used to evaluate the therapeutic potential of CYM in vivo. Continuous application of 2,4-dinitrochlorobenzene (DNCB) not only induced dermatitis in ICR mice but also aggravated the skin lesioning. However, the application of CYM decreased skin lesion severity, scratching behavior, and IgE levels. In addition, CYM downregulated the expression of the proinflammatory cytokines interleukin- (IL-) 4, IL-13, and tumor necrosis factor- (TNF-) α. Studies of signal transduction pathways showed that CYM suppressed the phosphorylation of spleen tyrosine kinase (Syk), an upstream molecule. It also inhibited the phosphorylation of Akt, phospholipase C- (PLC-) γ, and mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase kinase (MEKK). These results indicate that CYM may be effective in preventing and reducing allergic response and may have therapeutic potential as an antiallergic agent in disorders such as atopic dermatitis.
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Moon TC, Befus AD, Kulka M. Mast cell mediators: their differential release and the secretory pathways involved. Front Immunol 2014; 5:569. [PMID: 25452755 PMCID: PMC4231949 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2014.00569] [Citation(s) in RCA: 280] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2014] [Accepted: 10/23/2014] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Mast cells (MC) are widely distributed throughout the body and are common at mucosal surfaces, a major host-environment interface. MC are functionally and phenotypically heterogeneous depending on the microenvironment in which they mature. Although MC have been classically viewed as effector cells of IgE-mediated allergic diseases, they are also recognized as important in host defense, innate and acquired immunity, homeostatic responses, and immunoregulation. MC activation can induce release of pre-formed mediators such as histamine from their granules, as well as release of de novo synthesized lipid mediators, cytokines, and chemokines that play diverse roles, not only in allergic reactions but also in numerous physiological and pathophysiological responses. Indeed, MC release their mediators in a discriminating and chronological manner, depending upon the stimuli involved and their signaling cascades (e.g., IgE-mediated or Toll-like receptor-mediated). However, the precise mechanisms underlying differential mediator release in response to these stimuli are poorly known. This review summarizes our knowledge of MC mediators and will focus on what is known about the discriminatory release of these mediators dependent upon diverse stimuli, MC phenotypes, and species of origin, as well as on the intracellular synthesis, storage, and secretory processes involved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tae Chul Moon
- Pulmonary Research Group, Department of Medicine, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
| | - A. Dean Befus
- Pulmonary Research Group, Department of Medicine, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
| | - Marianna Kulka
- National Institute for Nanotechnology, National Research Council, Edmonton, AB, Canada
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