Ginsenoside Rh4 induces apoptosis and autophagic cell death through activation of the ROS/JNK/p53 pathway in colorectal cancer cells

Biological network comparison identifies a novel synergistic mechanism of Ginseng Radix-Astragali Radix herb pair in cancer-related fatigue

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Ginseng Radix and Astragali Radix are commonly combined to tonify Qi and alleviate fatigue. Previous studies have employed biological networks to investigate the mechanisms of herb pairs in treating different diseases. However, these studies have only elucidated a single network for each herb pair, without emphasizing the superiority of the herb combination over individual herbs.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study proposes an approach of comparing biological networks to highlight the synergistic effect of the pair in treating cancer-related fatigue (CRF).

METHODS

The compounds and targets of Ginseng Radix, Astragali Radix, and CRF diseases were collected and predicted using different databases. Subsequently, the overlapping targets between herbs and disease were imported into the STRING and DAVID tools to build protein-protein interaction (PPI) networks and analyze enriched KEGG pathways. The biological networks of Ginseng Radix and Astragali Radix were compared separately or together using the DyNet application. Molecular docking was used to verify the predicted results. Further, in vitro experiments were conducted to validate the synergistic pathways identified in in silico studies.

RESULTS

In the PPI network comparison, the combination created 89 new interactions and an increased average degree (11.260) when compared to single herbs (10.296 and 9.394). The new interactions concentrated on HRAS, STAT3, JUN, and IL6. The topological analysis identified 20 core targets of the combination, including three Ginseng Radix-specific targets, three Astragali Radix-specific targets, and 14 shared targets. In KEGG enrichment analysis, the combination regulated additional signaling pathways (152) more than Ginseng Radix (146) and Astragali Radix (134) alone. The targets of the herb pair synergistically regulated cancer pathways, specifically hypoxia-inducible factor 1 (HIF-1) signaling pathway. In vitro experiments including enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and Western blot demonstrated that two herbs combination could up-regulate HIF-1α signaling pathway at different combined concentrations compared to either single herb alone.

CONCLUSION

The herb pair increased protein interactions and adjusted metabolic pathways more than single herbs. This study provides insights into the combination of Ginseng Radix and Astragali Radix in clinical practice.

Study on the role of MYCN in retinoblastoma by inhibiting p53 and activating wnt/βcatenin/Fra-1 signaling pathway by reducing DKK3

Retinoblastoma (RB) is a pediatric malignancy, typically diagnosed at birth or during early childhood. The pathogenesis of RB is marked by the amplification of the Basic Helix-Loop-Helix (BHLH) Transcription Factor MYCN, which serves as a transcriptional regulator capable of binding to Dickkopf 3 (DKK3). However, the precise role of DKK3 in the malignant progression of RB cells caused by MYCN remains elusive. In the present study, the expression of MYCN was either overexpressed or interfered in RB cells. Subsequently, the expression level of DKK3 was assessed through quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction and western blot analysis. Cell proliferation was evaluated using the Cell Counting Kit-8 assay and 5-ethynyl-2'-deoxyuridine staining, while cell cycle progression and apoptosis were analyzed by flow cytometry and western blot analysis, respectively. Additionally, the expression of proteins involved in the Wnt/β-catenin/Fra-1/p53 signaling pathway was evaluated via western blot analysis. To gain further insights, Wnt agonists and the P53 inhibitor PFT-α were introduced into exploration. The current investigation revealed a negative correlation between the expression levels of MYCN and DKK3 in RB cells. Additionally, DKK3 overexpression inhibited cell proliferation, promoted cell apoptosis, and arrested cell cycle in RB cells with high expression of MYCN. Moreover, enhanced DKK3 expression inhibited proliferation, promoted cell cycle arrest and apoptosis of RB cells by modulating the wnt/βcatenin/Fra-1/p53 signaling pathway. Furthermore, in vivo experiments revealed that overexpression of DKK3 inhibits the growth of RB tumors. Collectively, our findings elucidate that MYCN stimulates the Wnt/β-catenin/Fra-1 pathway by suppressing DKK3 expression, ultimately suppressing p53 activity and contributing to malignant progression of RB.

Widely Targeted Metabolomic Analysis Reveals the Improvement in Panax notoginseng Triterpenoids Triggered by Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi via UPLC-ESI-MS/MS

Panax notoginseng is a highly valued perennial medicinal herb in China and is widely used in clinical treatments. The main purpose of this study was to elucidate the changes in the composition of P. notoginseng saponins (PNSs), which are the main bioactive substances, triggered by arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) via ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization-tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-ESI-MS/MS). A total of 202 putative terpenoid metabolites were detected, of which 150 triterpene glycosides were identified, accounting for 74.26% of the total. Correlation analysis, principal component analysis (PCA) and orthogonal partial least squares discriminant analysis (OPLS-DA) of the metabolites revealed that the samples treated with AMF (group Ce) could be clearly separated from the CK samples. In total, 49 differential terpene metabolites were identified between the Ce and CK groups, of which 38 and 11 metabolites were upregulated and downregulated, respectively, and most of the upregulated differentially abundant metabolites were mainly triterpene glycosides. The relative abundances of the two major notoginsenosides (MNs), ginsenosides Rd and Re, and 13 rare notoginsenosides (RNs), significantly increased. The differential saponins, especially RNs, were more easily clustered into one branch and had a high positive correlation. It could be concluded that the biosynthesis and accumulation of some RNs share the same pathways as those triggered by AMF. This study provides a new way to obtain more notoginsenoside resources, particularly RNs, and sheds new light on the scientization and rationalization of the use of AMF agents in the ecological planting of medicinal plants.

Ginsenoside Rh4 inhibits colorectal cancer via the modulation of gut microbiota-mediated bile acid metabolism

INTRODUCTION

Dysbiosis of the gut microbiota is emerging as a pivotal factor in the pathogenesis of colorectal cancer (CRC). Ginsenoside Rh4 (Rh4) is an active compound isolated from ginseng with beneficial effects in modulating intestinal inflammation and gut microbiota dysbiosis, but how Rh4 regulates the gut microbiota to alleviate CRC remains underexplored.

OBJECTIVES

We investigated the impact of Rh4 on CRC and the mechanism of its action in inhibiting CRC via modulation of gut microbiota.

METHODS

We used the AOM/DSS model and employed transcriptomics, genomics and metabolomics techniques to explore the inhibitory impact of Rh4 on CRC. Furthermore, we employed experiments involving antibiotic treatment and fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT) to investigate the role of the gut microbiota. Finally, we elucidated the pivotal role of key functional bacteria and metabolites regulated by Rh4 in CRC.

RESULTS

Our research findings indicated that Rh4 repaired intestinal barrier damage caused by CRC, alleviated intestinal inflammation, and inhibited the development of CRC. Additionally, Rh4 inhibited CRC in a gut microbiota-dependent manner. Rh4 increased the diversity of gut microbiota, enriched the probiotic Akkermansia muciniphila (A. muciniphila), and alleviated gut microbiota dysbiosis caused by CRC. Subsequently, Rh4 regulated A. muciniphila-mediated bile acid metabolism. A. muciniphila promoted the production of UDCA by enhancing the activity of 7α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (7α-HSDH). UDCA further activated FXR, modulated the TLR4-NF-κB signaling pathway, thus inhibiting the development of CRC.

CONCLUSION

Our results confirm that Rh4 inhibits CRC in a gut microbiota-dependent manner by modulating gut microbiota-mediated bile acid metabolism and promoting the production of UDCA, which further activates the FXR receptor and regulates the TLR4-NF-κB signaling pathway. Our results confirm that Rh4 has the potential to be used as a modulator of gut microbiota for preventing and treatment of CRC.

Traditional Chinese Medicine JianPiHuaTan formula improving quality of life and survival in patients with colorectal cancer through RAS/RAF downstream signaling pathways

Objective

JianPiHuaTan Formula (JPHTF), a traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), has been utilized as an adjunctive therapy for colorectal cancer (CRC). The study aims to evaluate the potential clinical benefits of JPHTF and its effectiveness in inhibiting tumor growth.

Methods

300 stage II/III CRC patients and 412 advanced CRC patients were enrolled to verify the clinical value of JPHTF in CRC treatment. Furthermore, CRC patient-derived xenograft (PDX) mice were utilized to investigate the regulatory mechanisms of JPHTF.

Results

JPHTF significantly improved abdominal distension, shortness of breath, drowsiness, loss of appetite, sleep, and tiredness in stage II/III CRC patients, thereby improving their quality of life. Simultaneously, JPHTF served as a supportive therapy in extending the overall survival (OS) of stage IV CRC patients with RAS/RAF mutations undergoing chemotherapy. Additionally, JPHTF effectively impeded tumor progression in CRC PDX models with RAS mutation, accompanied by a reduction in tumor cell content in the JPHTF group. Transcriptomic analysis revealed the involvement of the Hippo and Hedgehog signaling pathways in JPHTF-mediated CRC inhibition. Furthermore, mice in the JPHTF group exhibited increased immune cell infiltration.

Conclusion

These findings suggested that JPHTF may inhibits tumor growth in CRC with RAS mutation by modulating RAS/RAF downstream signaling pathways, specifically the Hippo and Hedgehog signaling, leading to increased immune cell infiltration.

Ginsenoside Rh4 alleviates gastrointestinal mucositis and enhances chemotherapy efficacy through modulating gut microbiota

BACKGROUND

Gastrointestinal mucositis stands as one of the most severe side effects of irinotecan (CPT-11). however, only palliative treatment is available at present. Therefore, there is an urgent need for adjunctive medications to alleviate the side effects of CPT-11.

PURPOSE

In this study, our objective was to explore whether ginsenoside Rh4 could serve as a modulator of the gut microbiota and an adjunctive agent for chemotherapy, thereby alleviating the side effects of CPT-11 and augmenting its anti-tumor efficacy.

STUDY DESIGN

A CPT-11-induced gastrointestinal mucositis model was used to investigate whether ginsenoside Rh4 alleviated CPT-11-induced gastrointestinal mucositis and enhanced the anti-tumor activity of CPT-11.

METHODS

In this study, we utilized CT26 cells to establish a xenograft tumor model, employing transcriptomics, genomics, and metabolomics techniques to investigate the impact of ginsenoside Rh4 on CPT-11-induced gastrointestinal mucositis and the effect on the anti-tumor activity of CPT-11. Furthermore, we explored the pivotal role of gut microbiota and their metabolites through fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT) experiments and supplementation of the key differential metabolite, hyodeoxycholic acid (HDCA).

RESULTS

The results showed that ginsenoside Rh4 repaired the impairment of intestinal barrier function and restored intestinal mucosal homeostasis in a gut microbiota-dependent manner. Ginsenoside Rh4 treatment modulated gut microbiota diversity and upregulated the abundance of beneficial bacteria, especially Lactobacillus_reuteri and Akkermansia_muciniphila, which further regulated bile acid biosynthesis, significantly promoted the production of the beneficial secondary bile acid hyodeoxycholic acid (HDCA), thereby alleviating CPT-11-induced gut microbiota dysbiosis. Subsequently, ginsenoside Rh4 further alleviated gastrointestinal mucositis through the TGR5-TLR4-NF-κB signaling pathway. On the other hand, ginsenoside Rh4 combination therapy could further reduce the weight and volume of colon tumors, promote tumor cell apoptosis, and enhance the anti-tumor activity of CPT-11 by inhibiting the PI3K-Akt signaling pathway, thus exerting a synergistic anti-tumor effect.

CONCLUSION

In summary, our findings confirm that ginsenoside Rh4 can alleviate CPT-11-induced gastrointestinal mucositis and enhance the anti-tumor activity of CPT-11 by modulating gut microbiota and its related metabolites. Our study validates the potential of ginsenoside Rh4 as a modulator of the gut microbiota and an adjunctive agent for chemotherapy, offering new therapeutic strategies for addressing chemotherapy side effects and improving chemotherapy efficacy.

Biotransformation of Ginsenoside Rb1 to Ginsenoside Rd and 7 Rare Ginsenosides Using Irpex lacteus with HPLC-HRMS/MS Identification

The biotransformation of ginsenosides using microorganisms represents a promising and ecofriendly approach for the production of rare ginsenosides. The present study reports on the biotransformation of ginsenoside Rb1 using the fungus Irpex lacteus, resulting in the production of ginsenoside Rd and seven rare ginsenosides with novel structures. Employing high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with high-resolution tandem mass spectrometry, the identities of the transformation products were rapidly determined. Two sets of isomers with molecular weights of 980.56 and 962.55 were discovered among the seven rare ginsenosides, which were generated through the isomerization of the olefin chain in the protopanaxadiol (PPD)-type ginsenoside skeleton. Each isomer exhibited characteristic fragment ions and neutral loss patterns in their tandem mass spectra, providing evidence of their unique structures. Time-course experiments demonstrated that the transformation reaction reached equilibrium after 14 days, with Rb1 initially generating Rd and compound 5, followed by the formation of other rare ginsenosides. The biotransformation process catalyzed by I. lacteus was found to involve not only the typical deglycosylation reaction at the C-20 position but also hydroxylation at the C-22 and C-23 positions, as well as hydrogenation, transfer, and cyclization of the double bond at the C-24(25) position. These enzymatic capabilities extend to the structural modification of other PPD-type ginsenosides such as Rc and Rd, revealing the potential of I. lacteus for the production of a wider range of rare ginsenosides. The transformation activities observed in I. lacteus are unprecedented among fungal biotransformations of ginsenosides. This study highlights the application of a medicinal fungi-based biotransformation strategy for the generation of rare ginsenosides with enhanced structural diversity, thereby expanding the variety of bioactive compounds derived from ginseng.

Ginsenoside Rh4 prevents endothelial dysfunction as a novel AMPK activator

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

The AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) signalling pathway is a desirable target for various cardiovascular diseases (CVD), while the involvement of AMPK-mediated specific downstream pathways and effective interventions in hyperlipidaemia-induced endothelial dysfunction remain largely unknown. Herein, we aim to identify an effective AMPK activator and to explore its efficacy and mechanism against endothelial dysfunction.

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

Molecular docking technique was adopted to screen for the potent AMPK activator among 11 most common rare ginsenosides. In vivo, poloxamer 407 (P407) was used to induce acute hyperlipidaemia in C57BL/6J mice. In vitro, palmitic acid (PA) was used to induce lipid toxicity in HAEC cells.

KEY RESULTS

We discovered the strongest binding of ginsenoside Rh4 to AMPKα1 and confirmed the action of Rh4 on AMPK activation. Rh4 effectively attenuated hyperlipidaemia-related endothelial injury and oxidative stress both in vivo and in vitro and restored cell viability, mitochondrial membrane potential and mitochondrial oxygen consumption rate in HAEC cells. Mechanistically, Rh4 bound to AMPKα1 and simultaneously up-regulated AKT/eNOS-mediated NO release, promoted PGC-1α-mediated mitochondrial biogenesis and inhibited P38 MAPK/NFκB-mediated inflammatory responses in both P407-treated mice and PA-treated HAEC cells. The AMPK inhibitor Compound C treatment completely abrogated the regulation of Rh4 on the above pathways and weakened the lowering effect of Rh4 on endothelial impairment markers, suggesting that the beneficial effects of Rh4 are AMPK dependent.

CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS

Rh4 may serve as a novel AMPK activator to protect against hyperlipidaemia-induced endothelial dysfunction, providing new insights into the prevention and treatment of endothelial injury-associated CVD.

Ginsenoside CK Alleviates DSS-Induced IBD in Mice by Regulating Tryptophan Metabolism and Activating Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor via Gut Microbiota Modulation

Dysbiosis of gut microbiota is believed to be associated with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Ginsenoside compound K (CK), the main metabolite of Panax ginseng ginsenoside, has proven effective as an anti-inflammatory agent in IBD. However, the mechanisms by which CK modulates gut microbiota to ameliorate IBD remain poorly understood. Herein, CK demonstrated the potential to suppress the release of proinflammatory cytokines by gut microbiota modulation. Notably, supplementation with CK promoted the restoration of a harmonious balance in gut microbiota, primarily by enhancing the populations of Lactobacillus and Akkermansia. Furthermore, CK considerably elevated the concentrations of tryptophan metabolites derived from Lactobacillus that could activate the aryl hydrocarbon receptor. Overall, the promising alleviative efficacy of CK primarily stemmed from the promotion of Lactobacillus growth and production of tryptophan metabolites, suggesting that CK should be regarded as a prospective prebiotic agent for IBD in the future.

Ginsenoside Rg1 Induces Autophagy in Colorectal Cancer through Inhibition of the Akt/mTOR/p70S6K Pathway

This study aimed to elucidate the anti-colon cancer mechanism of ginsenoside Rg1 in vitro and in vivo. Cell viability rate was detected using the 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) tetrazolium assay. The inhibitory effect of ginsenoside Rg1 against CT26 cell proliferation gradually increased with increasing concentration. The in vivo experiments also demonstrated an antitumor effect. The monodansylcadaverine (MDC), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and expression of autophagy marker proteins confirmed that ginsenoside Rg1 induced autophagy in vitro. Ginsenoside Rg1 induced autophagy death of CT26 cells, but this effect could be diminished by autophagy inhibitor (3-methyladenine, 3-MA). Additionally, in a xenograft model, immunohistochemical analysis of tumor tissues showed that the LC3 and Beclin-1 proteins were highly expressed in the tumors from the ginsenoside Rg1-treated nude mice, confirming that ginsenoside Rg1 also induced autophagy in vivo. Furthermoer, both in vivo and in vitro, the protein expressions of p-Akt, p-mTOR, and p-p70S6K were inhibited by ginsenoside Rg1, which was verified by Akt inhibitors. These results indicated that the mechanism of ginsenoside Rg1 against colon cancer was associated with autophagy through inhibition of the Akt/mTOR/p70S6K signaling pathway.

Ginsenoside RH4 inhibits Ang II-induced myocardial remodeling by interfering with NFIL3

Ventricular remodeling refers to the structural and functional changes of the heart under various stimuli or disease influences and may also be accompanied by myocardial fibrosis, where an excessive amount of fibrous tissue appears in the myocardial tissue, affecting the heart's normal contraction and relaxation. Hypertension is posing the potential risk of causing myocardial injury and remodeling. The significance of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) in myocardial remodeling cannot be overlooked. Drug targeting of RAAS can effectively lower blood pressure and reduce left ventricular mass. Studies have shown that ginsenoside Rh4 can inhibit oxidative stress and inflammatory responses. In this study, a myocardial remodeling model was established using angiotensin (Ang) II, and the inhibitory effect of RH4 on myocardial hypertrophy and remodeling induced by Ang II was investigated using pathological staining and quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR). Immunofluorescence and qPCR demonstrated that Rh4 causes myocardial hypertrophy and the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in vitro. The Rh4 target was identified using transcriptomics. The findings indicated that RH4 could inhibit myocardial hypertrophy, inflammatory fibrosis, and oxidative stress induced by Ang II, suggesting potential cardiovascular protection effects. In vitro experiments have shown that Rh4 inhibits myocardial hypertrophy. Transcriptomics revealed that nuclear factor interleukin-3 (NFIL3) is a downstream regulator of Rh4. By constructing AAV9-NFIL3 and injecting it into mice, it was found that NFIL3 overexpression interfered with anti-Ang II-induced myocardial remodeling of Rh4. These results indicate that Rh4 demonstrates potential therapeutic effects on myocardial hypertrophy and fibrosis.

DHCR24 in Tumor Diagnosis and Treatment: A Comprehensive Review

As an important nutrient in the human body, cholesterol can not only provide structural components for the body's cells, but also can be transformed into a variety of active substances to regulate cell signaling pathways. As an important cholesterol synthase, DHCR24 participates in important regulatory processes in the body. The application of DHCR24 in tumor clinical diagnosis and treatment also attracts much attention. This article reviews the structure and regulatory characteristics of DHCR24, and the research of DHCR24 on tumor progression. We summarize the possible mechanisms of DHCR24 promoting tumor progression through reactive oxygen species (ROS), p53, Ras and PI3K-AKT pathways. Through our review, we hope to provide more research ideas and reference value for the application of DHCR24 in tumor prevention and treatment.

Autophagy/ferroptosis in colorectal cancer: Carcinogenic view and nanoparticle-mediated cell death regulation

The cell death mechanisms have a long history of being evaluated in diseases and pathological events. The ability of triggering cell death is considered to be a promising strategy in cancer therapy, but some mechanisms have dual functions in cancer, requiring more elucidation of underlying factors. Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a disease and malignant condition of colon and rectal that causes high mortality and morbidity. The autophagy targeting in CRC is therapeutic importance and this cell death mechanism can interact with apoptosis in inhibiting or increasing apoptosis. Autophagy has interaction with ferroptosis as another cell death pathway in CRC and can accelerate ferroptosis in suppressing growth and invasion. The dysregulation of autophagy affects the drug resistance in CRC and pro-survival autophagy can induce drug resistance. Therefore, inhibition of protective autophagy enhances chemosensitivity in CRC cells. Moreover, autophagy displays interaction with metastasis and EMT as a potent regulator of invasion in CRC cells. The same is true for ferroptosis, but the difference is that function of ferroptosis is determined and it can reduce viability. The lack of ferroptosis can cause development of chemoresistance in CRC cells and this cell death mechanism is regulated by various pathways and mechanisms that autophagy is among them. Therefore, current review paper provides a state-of-art analysis of autophagy, ferroptosis and their crosstalk in CRC. The nanoparticle-mediated regulation of cell death mechanisms in CRC causes changes in progression. The stimulation of ferroptosis and control of autophagy (induction or inhibition) by nanoparticles can impair CRC progression. The engineering part of nanoparticle synthesis to control autophagy and ferroptosis in CRC still requires more attention.

Folate-Appended Hydroxypropyl-β-Cyclodextrin Induces Autophagic Cell Death in Acute Myeloid Leukemia Cells

Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) is a heterogenous myeloid neoplasm that remains challenging to treat. Because intensive conventional chemotherapy reduces survival rates in elderly patients, drugs with lower toxicity and fewer side effects are needed urgently. 2-Hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin (HP-β-CyD) is used clinically as a pharmaceutical excipient for poorly water-soluble drugs. Previously, we showed that HP-β-CyD exerts antitumor activity by disrupting cholesterol homeostasis. Recently, we developed folate-conjugated HP-β-CyD (FA-HP-β-CyD) and demonstrated its potential as a new antitumor agent that induces not only apoptosis, but also autophagic cell death; however, we do not know whether FA-HP-β-CyD exerts these effects against AML. Here, we investigated the effects of FA-HP-β-CyD on folate receptor (FR)-expressing AML cells. We found that the cytotoxic activity of FA-HP-β-CyD against AML cells was stronger than that of HP-β-CyD. Also, FA-HP-CyD induced the formation of autophagosomes in AML cell lines. FA-HP-β-CyD increased the inhibitory effects of cytarabine and a BCL-2-selective inhibitor, Venetoclax, which are commonly used treat elderly AML patients. Notably, FA-HP-β-CyD suppressed the proliferation of AML cells in BALB/c nude recombinase-activating gene-2 (Rag-2)/Janus kinase 3 (Jak3) double-deficient mice with AML. These results suggest that FA-HP-β-CyD acts as a potent anticancer agent for AML chemotherapy by regulating autophagy.

ADAMTS13 inhibits H2O2-induced human venous endothelial cell injury to attenuate deep-vein thrombosis by blocking the p38/ERK signaling pathway

Deep vein thrombosis (DVT) is a common complication in hematologic malignancies and immunologic disorders. Endothelial cell injury and dysfunction comprise the critical contributor for the development of DVT. A disintegrin and metalloproteinase with thrombospondin motifs 13 (ADAMTS13), a plasma metalloprotease that cleaves von Willebrand factor, acts as a critical regulator in normal hemostasis. This study was aimed to explore the role of ADAMTS13 in endothelial cell injury during DVT and the possible mechanism. First, human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) were exposed to hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). Then, the mRNA and protein expressions of ADAMTS13 were evaluated with the reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction and western blot. After treatment with recombinant ADAMTS13 (rADAMTS13; rA13), the viability and apoptosis of H2O2-induced HUVECs were assessed by cell counting kit-8 assay and terminal-deoxynucleoitidyl transferase-mediated nick end labeling staining. In addition, the levels of prostaglandin F1-alpha, endothelin-1, and reactive oxygen species were detected using the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and dichloro-dihydro-fluorescein diacetate assay. The expressions of proteins related to p38/extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) signaling pathway were estimated with the western blot. Then, p79350 (p38 agonist) was used to pretreat cells to analyze the regulatory effects of rA13 on p38/ERK signaling in H2O2-induced HUVEC injury. The results revealed that ADAMTS13 expression was significantly downregulated in H2O2-induced HUVECs. The reduced viability and increased apoptosis of HUVECs induced by H2O2 were revived by ADAMTS13. ADAMTS13 also suppressed the oxidative stress in HUVECs after H2O2 treatment. Besides, ADAMTS13 was found to block p38/ERK signaling pathway, and p79350 reversed the impacts of ADAMTS13 on the damage of HUVECs induced by H2O2. To sum up, ADAMTS13 could alleviate H2O2-induced HUVEC injury through the inhibition of p38/ERK signaling pathway.

Ginsenoside Rh4 inhibits inflammation-related hepatocellular carcinoma progression by targeting HDAC4/IL-6/STAT3 signaling

This study aimed to investigate the effects of Ginsenoside Rh4 (Rh4) on inflammation-related hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) progression and the underlying mechanism. HCC cells (HUH7 and LM3) were induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) to establish an inflammatory environment in the absence or presence of Rh4. CCK-8, wound healing and transwell assays were employed to analyze the viability, migration and invasion of HCC cells. Ki67 expression was detected by immunofluorescence method. Besides, the levels of glucose and lactic acid were tested by kits. The expression of proteins related to migration, glycolysis and histone deacetylase 4 (HDAC4)/IL-6/STAT3 signaling was measured with western blot. The transplantation tumor model of HCC in mice was established to observe the impacts of Rh4 on the tumor growth. Results indicated that Rh4 restricted the viability and Ki67 expression in HCC cells exposed to LPS. The elevated migration and invasion of HCC cells triggered by LPS were reduced by Rh4. Additionally, Rh4 treatment remarkably decreased the contents of glucose and lactic acid and downregulated LDHA and GLUT1 expression. The database predicated that Rh4 could target HDAC4, and our results revealed that Rh4 downregulated HDAC4, IL-6 and p-STAT3 expression. Furthermore, the enforced HDAC4 expression alleviated the effects of Rh4 on the proliferation, migration, invasion and glycolysis of HCC cells stimulated by LPS. Taken together, Rh4 could suppress inflammation-related HCC progression by targeting HDAC4/IL-6/STAT3 signaling. These findings clarify a new anti-cancer mechanism of Rh4 on HCC and provide a promising agent to limit HCC development.

Ginsenosides in cancer: Targeting cell cycle arrest and apoptosis

Despite the existence of extensive clinical research and novel therapeutic treatments, cancer remains undefeated and the significant cause of death worldwide. Cancer is a disease in which growth of cells goes out of control, being also able to invade other parts of the body. Cellular division is strictly controlled by multiple checkpoints like G1/S and G2/M which, when dysregulated, lead to uncontrollable cell division. The current remedies which are being utilized to combat cancer are monoclonal antibodies, chemotherapy, cryoablation, and bone marrow transplant etc. and these have also been greatly disheartening because of their serious adverse effects like hypotension, neuropathy, necrosis, leukemia relapse and many more. Bioactive compounds derived from natural products have marked the history of the development of novel drug therapies against cancer among which ginsenosides have no peer as they target several signaling pathways, which when abnormally regulated, lead to cancer. Substantial research has reported that ginsenosides like Rb1, Rb2, Rb3, Rc, Rd, Rg3, Rh2 etc. can prevent and treat cancer by targeting different pathways and molecules by induction of autophagy, neutralizing ROS, induction of cancerous cell death by controlling the p53 pathway, modulation of miRNAs by decreasing Smad2 expression, regulating Bcl-2 expression by normalizing the NF-Kb pathway, inhibition of inflammatory pathways by decreasing the production of cytokines like IL-8, causing cell cycle arrest by restricting cyclin E1 and CDC2, and induction of apoptosis during malignancy by decreasing β-catenin levels etc. In this review, we have analyzed the anti-cancer therapeutic potential of various ginsenoside compounds in order to consider their possible use in new strategies in the fight against cancer.

Multifaceted role of redox pattern in the tumor immune microenvironment regarding autophagy and apoptosis

The reversible oxidation-reduction homeostasis mechanism functions as a specific signal transduction system, eliciting related physiological responses. Disruptions to redox homeostasis can have negative consequences, including the potential for cancer development and progression, which are closely linked to a series of redox processes, such as adjustment of reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels and species, changes in antioxidant capacity, and differential effects of ROS on downstream cell fate and immune capacity. The tumor microenvironment (TME) exhibits a complex interplay between immunity and regulatory cell death, especially autophagy and apoptosis, which is crucially regulated by ROS. The present study aims to investigate the mechanism by which multi-source ROS affects apoptosis, autophagy, and the anti-tumor immune response in the TME and the mutual crosstalk between these three processes. Given the intricate role of ROS in controlling cell fate and immunity, we will further examine the relationship between traditional cancer therapy and ROS. It is worth noting that we will discuss some potential ROS-related treatment options for further future studies.

Anticancer therapeutic effect of ginsenosides through mediating reactive oxygen species

Dysregulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and ROS-regulated pathways in cancer cells leads to abnormal accumulation of reactive oxygen species, displaying a double-edged role in cancer progression, either supporting transformation/proliferation and stimulating tumorigenesis or inducing cell death. Cancer cells can accommodate reactive oxygen species by regulating them at levels that allow the activation of pro-cancer signaling pathways without inducing cell death via modulation of the antioxidant defense system. Therefore, targeting reactive oxygen species is a promising approach for cancer treatment. Ginsenosides, their derivatives, and related drug carriers are well-positioned to modulate multiple signaling pathways by regulating oxidative stress-mediated cellular and molecular targets to induce apoptosis; regulate cell cycle arrest and autophagy, invasion, and metastasis; and enhance the sensitivity of drug-resistant cells to chemotherapeutic agents of different cancers depending on the type, level, and source of reactive oxygen species, and the type and stage of the cancer. Our review focuses on the pro- and anticancer effects of reactive oxygen species, and summarizes the mechanisms and recent advances in different ginsenosides that bring about anticancer effects by targeting reactive oxygen species, providing new ideas for designing further anticancer studies or conducting more preclinical and clinical studies.

Ginsenoside Rh4 inhibits the malignant progression of multiple myeloma and induces ferroptosis by regulating SIRT2

Multiple myeloma (MM) has a high mortality rate, and the exploration of therapeutic drugs for MM with low side effects is a hot topic at the moment. Ginsenoside Rh4 has been shown to inhibit tumour growth in many cancers. However, the role of ginsenoside Rh4 in MM and its reaction mechanism have not been reported so far. After the treatment with different concentrations of ginsenoside Rh4, the proliferation of NCI-H929 cells was detected by Cell Counting Kit-8 and 5-ethynyl-2'-deoxyuridine staining. The cell apoptosis and cycle arrest were detected by flow cytometry and western blot. The thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances (TBARS) production was assessed with TBARS assay, whereas Fe²⁺ fluorescence assay was used for the measurement of Fe²⁺ level. The production of reactive oxygen species was evaluated with dichloro-dihydro-fluorescein diacetate staining, and western blot was applied for the estimation of ferroptosis-related proteins. The potential targets of ginsenoside Rh4 were predicted by molecular docking technology and verified by western blot. The transfection efficacy of overexpression-SIRT2 was examined with quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction and western blot. To figure out the detailed reaction mechanism between ginsenoside Rh4 and SIRT2 in MM, rescue experiments were conducted. We found that ginsenoside Rh4 inhibited cell proliferation, induced cell apoptosis, promoted cycle arrest and facilitated ferroptosis in MM. Moreover, ginsenoside Rh4 inhibited SIRT2 expression in MM cells. The overexpression of SIRT2 reversed the effects of ginsenoside Rh4 on cell proliferation, cell apoptosis, cycle arrest and ferroptosis in MM. Overall, ginsenoside Rh4 inhibited the malignant progression of MM and induced ferroptosis by regulating SIRT2.

Ginsenoside Rh4 Improves Hepatic Lipid Metabolism and Inflammation in a Model of NAFLD by Targeting the Gut Liver Axis and Modulating the FXR Signaling Pathway

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is a series of disorders of liver metabolism caused by the accumulation of lipids in the liver, which is considered the main cause of hepatocellular carcinoma. Our previous study demonstrated the promising efficacy of ginsenoside Rh4 in improving the intestinal tract and its related metabolites. Meanwhile, many studies in the literature have investigated the gut microbiota and its metabolites, such as bile acids (BAs) and short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), which play a key role in the pathogenesis of NAFLD. Therefore, this study focused on whether Rh4 could achieve therapeutic effects on NAFLD through the gut-liver axis. The results showed that Rh4 exhibited sound therapeutic effects on the NAFLD model induced by the Western diet and CCl₄ in mice. In the liver, the degrees of hepatic steatosis, lobular inflammation levels, and bile acid in the liver tissue were improved after Rh4 treatment. At the same time, Rh4 treatment significantly increased the levels of intestinal SCFAs and BAs, and these changes were accompanied by the complementary diversity and composition of intestinal flora. In addition, correlation analysis showed that Rh4 affected the expression of proteins involved in the farnesoid X receptor (FXR) signaling pathway in the liver and intestine, which modulates hepatic lipid metabolism, inflammation, and proteins related to bile acid regulation. In conclusion, our study provides a valuable insight into how Rh4 targets the gut-liver axis for the development of NAFLD, which indicates that Rh4 may be a promising candidate for the clinical therapy of NAFLD.

Advances in Enantiomer-Dependent Nanotherapeutics

The nanoscale properties of nanomaterials, especially nanoparticles, including size, shape, and surface charge, have been extensively studied for their impact on nanomedicine. Given the inherent chiral nature of biological systems and their high enantiomeric selectivity, there is rising interest to manipulate the chirality of nanomaterials to enhance their biomolecular interactions and improve nanotherapeutics. Chiral nanostructures are currently more prevalently used in biosensing and diagnostic applications owing to their distinctive physical and optical properties, but they hold great promise for use in nanomedicine. In this Review, we first discuss stereospecific interactions between chiral nanomaterials and biomolecules before comparing the synthesis and characterization methods of chiral nanoparticles and nanoassemblies. Finally, we examine the applications of chiral nanotherapeutics in cancer, immunomodulation, and neurodegenerative diseases and propose plausible mechanisms in which chiral nanomaterials interact with cells for biological manipulation. This Review on chirality is a timely reminder of the arsenal of nanoscale modifications to boost research in nanotherapeutics.

Garcinone E triggers apoptosis and cell cycle arrest in human colorectal cancer cells by mediating a reactive oxygen species–dependent JNK signaling pathway

Despite various therapeutic approaches, colorectal cancer is among the most fatal diseases globally. Hence, developing novel and more effective methods for colorectal cancer treatment is essential. Recently, reactive oxygen species (ROS)/JNK signaling pathway has been proposed as the potential target for the anticancer drug discovery. The present study investigated the anticancer effects of the bioactive xanthone garcinone E (GAR E) in mangosteen and explored its underlying mechanism of action. HT-29 and Caco-2 cancer cells were used as in vitro models to study the anticancer effect of GAR E. The findings demonstrated that GAR E inhibited colony formation and wound healing, whereas triggered the production of ROS, which induced mitochondrial dysfunction and apoptosis, causing cell cycle arrest at the Sub G1 phase. Additionally, GAR E treatment elevated the ratio of Bax/Bcl-2 and activated PARP, caspases 3 and 9, and JNK1/2. These GAR E-induced cytotoxic activities and expression of signaling proteins were reversed by the antioxidant N-acetyl-L-cysteine and JNK inhibitor SP600125, indicating the involvement of ROS/JNK signaling pathways. In vivo experiments using an HT-29 xenograft nude mouse model also demonstrated the antitumor effect of GAR E. In conclusion, our findings showed that GAR E might be potentially effective in treating colorectal cancer and provided insights into the development of xanthones as novel chemotherapeutic agents.

Gastroprotective effects of ginsenoside Rh4 against ethanol-induced gastric mucosal injury by inhibiting the MAPK/NF-κB signaling pathway

Ginsenoside Rh4, a bioactive component extracted from Panax ginseng, exhibits various pharmacological activities, such as anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidation, anti-diabetes, anti-obesity, antitumor and immunity enhancement. However, the gastroprotective effect of ginsenoside Rh4 remains unknown. The present study evaluated the gastroprotective effect and potential mechanism of ginsenoside Rh4 in an ethanol-induced gastric ulcer model. Ginsenoside Rh4 (15, 30, and 60 mg kg^-1) and omeprazole (30 mg kg^-1) were administered orally for 7 days. The results showed that pretreatment with ginsenoside Rh4 reduced the gastric injury area and percentage of mucosal lesions in gastric tissue. Besides, treatment with ginsenoside Rh4 increased superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity, glutathione (GSH) and nitric oxide (NO) levels, reduced the content of malonaldehyde (MDA), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and interleukin-1β (IL-1β), mediated the prostaglandin E-2-cyclooxygenase-2 (PGE2-Cox-2) pathway, and mitigated inflammation and oxidative stress via blockade of proinflammatory mitogen-activated protein kinase-nuclear factor κB (MAPK/NF-κB) signaling pathways. Furthermore, ginsenoside Rh4 significantly enhanced the protein expression of B-cell lymphoma gene 2 (Bcl-2), decreased the protein expression of Bcl-2-associated X protein (Bax) and tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily member 6 (Fas), and inhibited the number of apoptotic cells in gastric tissues. The present work demonstrated that ginsenoside Rh4 exerted a considerable gastroprotective effect against ethanol-induced gastric ulcers in rats.

Polygalacin D inhibits the growth of hepatocellular carcinoma cells through BNIP3L-mediated mitophagy and endogenous apoptosis pathways

Platycodon grandiflorum (Jacq.) A. DC. is a famous medicinal plant commonly used in East Asia. Triterpene saponins isolated from P. grandiflorum are the main biologically active compounds, among which polygalacin D (PGD) has been reported to be an anti-tumor agent. However, its anti-tumor mechanism against hepatocellular carcinoma is unknown. This study aimed to explore the inhibitory effect of PGD in hepatocellular carcinoma cells and related mechanisms of action. We found that PGD exerted significant inhibitory effect on hepatocellular carcinoma cells through apoptosis and autophagy. Analysis of the expression of apoptosis-related proteins and autophagy-related proteins revealed that this phenomenon was attributed to the mitochondrial apoptosis and mitophagy pathways. Subsequently, using specific inhibitors, we found that apoptosis and autophagy had mutually reinforcing effects. In addition, further analysis of autophagy showed that PGD induced mitophagy by increasing BCL2 interacting protein 3 like (BNIP3L) levels.In vivo experiments demonstrated that PGD significantly inhibited tumor growth and increased the levels of apoptosis and autophagy in tumors. Overall, our findings showed that PGD induced cell death of hepatocellular carcinoma cells primarily through mitochondrial apoptosis and mitophagy pathways. Therefore, PGD can be used as an apoptosis and autophagy agonist in the research and development of antitumor agents.

Ginsenoside Rh4 inhibits breast cancer growth through targeting histone deacetylase 2 to regulate immune microenvironment and apoptosis

High expression of histone deacetylase 2 (HDAC2) is recognized as a marker of invasive breast cancer (BC). HDAC2 is not only responsible for enhancing tumor cell growth, development, and anti-apoptosis, but also plays a significant role in regulating PD-L1 on the surface of tumor cells. Continuous expression of PD-L1 allows tumor cells to escape immune surveillance. There is not much research on how HDAC2 affects the immune system in breast cancer. Ginsenoside Rh4 (Rh4) is a major rare saponin in heat-treated ginseng, which is widely applied in treating and preventing various diseases because of its potent medicinal value and stable safety. However, it is unclear how Rh4 affects the tumor immune microenvironment in breast cancer. Therefore, this paper aims to investigate the effect of Rh4 on HDAC2 in breast cancer, specifically the effect of HDAC2 on apoptosis and the immune microenvironment to inhibit breast cancer growth. According to our study, ginsenoside Rh4 has been shown to significantly suppress breast cancer cell proliferation without any adverse effects. The molecular docking results of Rh4 and HDAC2 indicate a binding energy of -6.06 kcal/mol, suggesting the potential of Rh4 as a targeting modulator of HDAC2. Mechanistically, Rh4 induces apoptosis of breast cancer cells by the HDAC2-mediated caspase pathway and inhibits the HDAC2-mediated JAK/STAT pathway to regulate the immune microenvironment, which inhibits breast cancer growth. Specifically, Rh4 was shown for the first time to blockade immune checkpoints (PD-1/PD-L1) and increase levels of T-lymphocytes in the tumor. In a word, our study establishes a theoretical framework for applying Rh4 as an immune checkpoint inhibitor as part of breast cancer treatment.

Effects of saponins from Chinese herbal medicines on signal transduction pathways in cancer: A review

Cancer poses a serious threat to human health, and the search for safe and effective drugs for its treatment has aroused interest and become a long-term goal. Traditional Chinese herbal medicine (TCM), an ancient science with unique anti-cancer advantages, has achieved outstanding results in long-term clinical practice. Accumulating evidence shows that saponins are key bioactive components in TCM and have great research and development applications for their significant role in the treatment of cancer. Saponins are a class of glycosides comprising nonpolar triterpenes or sterols attached to hydrophilic oligosaccharide groups that exert antitumor effects by targeting the NF-κB, PI3Ks-Akt-mTOR, MAPK, Wnt-β-catenin, JAK-STAT3, APMK, p53, and EGFR signaling pathways. Presently, few advances have been made in physiological and pathological studies on the effect of saponins on signal transduction pathways involved in cancer treatment. This paper reviews the phytochemistry and extraction methods of saponins of TCM and their effects on signal transduction pathways in cancer. It aims to provide theoretical support for in-depth studies on the anticancer effects of saponins.

Formosanin C suppresses cancer cell proliferation and migration by impeding autophagy machinery

Formosanin C (FC) is a natural compound extracted from Paris formosana Hayata with anticancer activity. FC induces both autophagy and apoptosis in human lung cancer cells. FC-induced depolarization of mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) may trigger mitophagy. In this study, we clarified the effect of FC on autophagy, mitophagy, and the role of autophagy in FC-related cell death and motility. We found FC caused the continuous increase of LC3 II (representing autophagosomes) from 24 to 72 h without degradation after treatment of lung and colon cancer cells, indicating that FC blocks autophagic progression. In addition, we confirmed that FC also induces early stage autophagic activity. Altogether, FC is not only an inducer but also a blocker of autophagy progression. Moreover, FC increased MMP accompanied by overexpression of COX IV (mitochondria marker) and phosphorylated Parkin (p-Parkin, mitophagy marker) in lung cancer cells, but no colocalization of LC3 with COX IV or p-Parkin was detected under confocal microscopy. Moreover, FC could not block CCCP (mitophagy inducer)-induced mitophagy. These results imply that FC disrupts mitochondria dynamics in the treated cells, and the underlying mechanism deserves further exploration. Functional analysis reveals that FC suppresses cell proliferation and motility through apoptosis and EMT-related pathway, respectively. In conclusion, FC acts as an inducer as well as a blocker of autophagy that results in cancer cell apoptosis and decreased motility. Our findings shed the light on the development of combined therapy with FC and clinical anticancer drugs for cancer treatment.

How ginseng regulates autophagy: Insights from multistep process

BACKGROUND

Although autophagy is a recognized contributor to the pathogenesis of human diseases, chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine are the only two FDA-approved autophagy inhibitors to date. Emerging evidence has revealed the potential therapeutic benefits of various extracts and active compounds isolated from ginseng, especially ginsenosides and their derivatives, by mediating autophagy. Mechanistically, active components from ginseng mediate key regulators in the multistep processes of autophagy, namely, initiation, autophagosome biogenesis and cargo degradation.

AIM OF REVIEW

To date, a review that systematically described the relationship between ginseng and autophagy is still lacking. Breakthroughs in finding the key players in ginseng-autophagy regulation will be a promising research area, and will provide positive insights into the development of new drugs based on ginseng and autophagy.

KEY SCIENTIFIC CONCEPTS OF REVIEW

Here, we comprehensively summarized the critical roles of ginseng-regulated autophagy in treating diseases, including cancers, neurological disorders, cardiovascular diseases, inflammation, and neurotoxicity. The dual effects of the autophagy response in certain diseases are worthy of note; thus, we highlight the complex impacts of both ginseng-induced and ginseng-inhibited autophagy. Moreover, autophagy and apoptosis are controlled by multiple common upstream signals, cross-regulate each other and affect certain diseases, especially cancers. Therefore, this review also discusses the cross-signal transduction pathways underlying the molecular mechanisms and interaction between ginseng-regulated autophagy and apoptosis.

Modulation of redox homeostasis: A strategy to overcome cancer drug resistance

Cancer treatment is hampered by resistance to conventional therapeutic strategies, including chemotherapy, immunotherapy, and targeted therapy. Redox homeostasis manipulation is one of the most effective innovative treatment techniques for overcoming drug resistance. Reactive oxygen species (ROS), previously considered intracellular byproducts of aerobic metabolism, are now known to regulate multiple signaling pathways as second messengers. Cancer cells cope with elevated amounts of ROS during therapy by upregulating the antioxidant system, enabling tumor therapeutic resistance via a variety of mechanisms. In this review, we aim to shed light on redox modification and signaling pathways that may contribute to therapeutic resistance. We summarized the molecular mechanisms by which redox signaling-regulated drug resistance, including altered drug efflux, action targets and metabolism, enhanced DNA damage repair, maintained stemness, and reshaped tumor microenvironment. A comprehensive understanding of these interrelationships should improve treatment efficacy from a fundamental and clinical research point of view.

Purification of Polysaccharides from Orostachys cartilaginous Cell Cultures by Macroporous Resin Absorption and Bioactivities of the Purified Polysaccharides

Orostachys cartilaginous is a traditional herbal medicine and its cell cultures contain large amounts of polysaccharides. To utilize the cultured O. cartilaginous cells, this study purified the crude polysaccharides of O. cartilaginous cells by macroporous resin absorption and optimized the purification process in the experiment of orthogonal design with four factors (sample concentration and volume, and eluent concentration and volume) and three levels; the antibacterial and anti-cancer effects of the purified polysaccharides (OTP) were further examined. The results showed that polysaccharide purity reached 95 % in the optimized group, i. e., 1.6 mg/mL of sample (crude polysaccharides) concentration, 3.0 bed volume (BV) of sample volume, 65 % eluent (ethanol) concentration, and 3.0 BV of eluent volume. In the antibacterial experiment, the growth of three bacterial species, i. e., Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, and Bacillus subtilis was inhibited by OTP, whereas that of Escherichia coli was not affected; the largest diameter of the inhibitory zone was found on B. subtilis; the extracellular alkaline phosphatase activity and the electrical conductivity, nucleic acid, and protein levels of B. subtilis increased after OTP treatment, indicating that the inhibition of B. subtilis growth was caused by the leakage of cell contents. In the anti-cancer experiment, OTP decreased the cell viabilities of the tested human cancer cells, i. e., AGS (gastric cancer), HCT116 (colon cancer), HepG2 (liver cancer), and HeLa (cervical cancer), and the highest inhibitory effect was on HCT116. OTP promoted HCT116 apoptosis and affected the expression of apoptosis-related proteins, i. e., the expression of B-cell lymphoma-2 decreased and that of bcl-2 associated X protein, cytochrome c, caspase 9 and caspase 3 increased. The findings of the present study suggest that O. cartilaginous cell cultures have a potential application in food or drug production.

Natural phytochemicals that affect autophagy in the treatment of oral diseases and infections: A review

Autophagy is a critical factor in eukaryotic evolution. Cells provide nutrition and energy during autophagy by destroying non-essential components, thereby allowing intracellular material conversion and managing temporary survival stress. Autophagy is linked to a variety of oral disorders, including the type and extent of oral malignancies. Furthermore, autophagy is important in lymphocyte formation, innate immunity, and the regulation of acquired immune responses. It is also required for immunological responses in the oral cavity. Knowledge of autophagy has aided in the identification and treatment of common oral disorders, most notably cancers. The involvement of autophagy in the oral immune system may offer a new understanding of the immune mechanism and provide a novel approach to eliminating harmful bacteria in the body. This review focuses on autophagy creation, innate and acquired immunological responses to autophagy, and the status of autophagy in microbial infection research. Recent developments in the regulatory mechanisms of autophagy and therapeutic applications in oral illnesses, particularly oral cancers, are also discussed. Finally, the relationship between various natural substances that may be used as medications and autophagy is investigated.

Yifei sanjie Pills Alleviate Chemotherapy-Related Fatigue by Reducing Skeletal Muscle Injury and Inhibiting Tumor Growth in Lung Cancer Mice

Chemotherapy-related fatigue (CRF), one of the most severe adverse effects observed in cancer patients, has been theoretically related to oxidative stress, and antioxidant treatment might be one of the most valuable therapeutic approaches. However, there are still few effective pharmacological therapies. Yifei Sanjie pills (YFSJ), a classical formula used to treat lung cancer as complementary and alternative medicine, have been proved to alleviate CRF of lung cancer patients in clinical practices. However, the underlying mechanisms have not been clarified. In this study, our data showed that YFSJ alleviated CRF presented as reversing the decline of swimming time and locomotor activity induced by cisplatin (DDP). Moreover, YFSJ significantly reduces the accidence of mitophagy and mitochondrial damage and reduces apoptosis in skeletal muscle tissues caused by DDP. It probably works by decreasing the oxidative stress, inhibiting the activation of the AMPK/mTOR pathway, decreasing protein expression levels of Beclin1 and other autophagy-related proteins, and attenuating the activation of Cytochrome c (cyto. C), Cleaved Caspase-9 (c-Casp 9), and other apoptosis-related proteins. Furthermore, YFSJ enhanced DDP sensitivity by specifically promoting oxidative stress and activating apoptosis and autophagy in the tumor tissues of mice. It was also found that YFSJ reduced the loss of body weight caused by DDP, reversed the ascent of serum concentrations of alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aminotransferase (AST), and creatinine (CREA), increased the spleen index, and prolonged the survival time of mice. Taken together, these results revealed that YFSJ could alleviate CRF by reducing mitophagy and apoptosis induced by oxidative stress in skeletal muscle; these results also displayed the effects of YFSJ on enhancing chemotherapy sensitivity, improving quality of life, and prolonging survival time in lung cancer mice received DDP chemotherapy.

The effects of Ginsenosides on PI3K/AKT signaling pathway

Ginsenosides belong to a group of steroid glycosides that are extracted from the plant genus Panax (ginseng). This plant has been used for a long time for the treatment of a variety of disorders in traditional medicine. Recent studies have assessed the biological impact of Ginsenosides in cell culture or animal models. Animal studies have shown their beneficial impacts in the remedy of pathological conditions in different tissues. The ameliorating effects of Ginsenosides in diverse pathogenic conditions can be attributed to their effects on the production of reactive oxygen species. These substances mainly affect the activity of AMPK/AKT and PI3K/AKT pathways. The beneficial effects of Ginsenosides have been appraised in diabetes-related complications, spinal cord injury, cerebral ischemia, myocardial ischemia, and other disorders which are associated with oxidative stress. Moreover, these substances have been shown to interfere with the pathologic conditions during carcinogenesis. In the current study, we explain these impacts in two distinct sections including non-neoplastic conditions and neoplastic conditions.

Therapeutic effects of ginseng and ginsenosides on colorectal cancer

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is among the most common malignant diseases with high morbidity and mortality rates. Ginseng and its major extracts, ginsenosides, have been used in medical fields for thousands of years. In particular, their huge anti-cancer potential has drawn a great deal of attention in recent years. There is a large body of evidence that has shown that ginseng and its extracts could significantly inhibit tumor development and progression by suppressing cell proliferation, tumor growth, invasion and metastasis, inducing tumor cell apoptosis, regulating tumor-associated immune responses, and improving the therapeutic effect of chemotherapy. Notably, different subtypes of ginsenosides, even those extracted from the same ginseng, have exhibited distinct anti-cancer functions through different mechanisms. Over the past few years, a large number of studies have focused on how ginseng or various ginsenosides influence CRC development. Therefore, the roles and the potential of ginseng and ginsenosides in the treatment of CRC are summarized in this review. In addition, the biochemical properties of ginseng and ginsenosides are also briefly described.

Bioactive components of Banxia Xiexin Decoction for the treatment of gastrointestinal diseases based on flavor-oriented analysis

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Banxia Xiexin Decoction (BXD) was first recorded in a Chinese medical classic, Treatise on Febrile Diseases and Miscellaneous Diseases, which was written in the Eastern Han dynasty of China. This ancient prescription consists of seven kinds of Chinese herbal medicine, namely, Pinellia ternata, Rhizoma Coptidis, Radix scutellariae, Rhizoma Zingiberis, Ginseng, Jujube, and Radix Glycyrrhizaepreparata. In clinic practice, its original application in China mainly has focused on the treatment of chronic gastritis for several hundred years. BXD is also effective in treating other gastrointestinal diseases (GIDs) in modern medical application. Despite available literature support and clinical experience, the treatment mechanisms or their relationships with the bioactive compounds in BXD responsible for its pharmacological actions, still need further explorations in more diversified channels. According to the analysis based on the five-flavor theory of TCM, BXD is traditionally viewed as the most representative prescription for pungent-dispersion, bitter-purgation and sweet-tonification. Consequently, based on the flavor-oriented analysis, the compositive herbs in BXD can be divided into three flavor groups, namely, the pungent, bitter, and sweet groups, each of which has specific active ingredients that are possibly relevant to GID treatment.

AIM OF THE REVIEW

This paper summarized recent literatures on BXD and its bioactive components used in GID treatment, and provided the pharmacological or chemical basis for the further exploration of the ancient prescription and the relative components.

METHOD

ology: Relevant literature was collected from various electronic databases such as Pubmed, Web of Science, and China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI). Citations were based on peer-reviewed articles published in English or Chinese during the last decade.

RESULTS

Multiple components were found in the pungent, bitter, and sweet groups in BXD. The corresponding bioactive components include gingerol, shogaol, stigmasterol, and β-sitosterol in the pungent group; berberine, palmatine, coptisine, baicalein, and baicalin in the bitter group; and ginsenosides, polysaccharides, liquiritin, and glycyrrhetinic acid in the sweet group. These components have been found directly or indirectly responsible for the remarkable effects of BXD on GID.

CONCLUSION

This review provided some valuable reference to further clarify BXD treatment for GID and their possible material basis, based on the perspective of the flavor-oriented analysis.

Ginsenoside Rh4 Inhibits Colorectal Cancer Cell Proliferation by Inducing Ferroptosis via Autophagy Activation

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a severe threat to human health. Ginsenosides such as ginsenoside Rh4 have been widely studied in the antitumor field. Here, we investigated the antiproliferative activity and mechanism of Rh4 against CRC in vivo and in vitro. The CRC xenograft model showed that Rh4 inhibited xenograft tumor growth with few side effects (p < 0.05). As determined by MTT colorimetric assays, Western blotting, and immunohistochemical analysis, Rh4 effectively inhibited CRC cell proliferation through autophagy and ferroptosis (p < 0.05). Rh4 significantly upregulated autophagy and ferroptosis marker expression in CRC cells and xenograft tumor tissues in the present study (p < 0.05). Interestingly, the ferroptosis inhibitor ferrostatin-1 (Fer-1) reversed Rh4-induced ferroptosis (p < 0.05). Moreover, the autophagy inhibitor 3-methyladenine (3-MA) also reversed Rh4-induced ferroptosis (p < 0.05). These results indicate that Rh4-induced ferroptosis is regulated via the autophagy pathway. In addition, Rh4 increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) accumulation, leading to the activation of the ROS/p53 signaling pathway (p < 0.05). Transcriptome sequencing also confirmed this (p < 0.05). Moreover, the ROS scavenger N-acetyl-cysteine (NAC) reversed the inhibitory effect of Rh4 on CRC cells (p < 0.05). Therefore, this study proves that Rh4 inhibits cancer cell proliferation by activating the ROS/p53 signaling pathway and activating autophagy to induce ferroptosis, which provides necessary scientific evidence of the great anticancer potential of Rh4.

Ginsenoside CK induces apoptosis in triple-negative breast cancer cells by targeting glutamine metabolism

Breast cancer (BC) has replaced lung cancer as the most common cancer worldwide. Ginsenoside CK (CK) can effectively inhibit triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC), the occurrence and development of which are associated with glutamine addiction. However, the connection between CK and glutamine metabolism in TNBC proliferation and the mechanism of cell death induction remains unclear. Here, we found that high glutamine-addicted TNBC cells were particularly sensitive to CK treatment. CK exerted antitumour activity against TNBC by suppressing glutamine consumption and glutamate production via downregulation of glutaminase 1 (GLS1) expression. CK treatment further decreased cellular ATP production, reduced the utilisation of amino acids associated with glutamine metabolism, and induced glutathione (GSH) depletion and reactive oxygen species (ROS) accumulation, consequently triggering apoptosis in TNBC. Furthermore, CK decreased GLS1 expression in SUM159 xenograft mouse mammary tumours and significantly inhibited tumour growth with few side effects. Together, our data provide a powerful theoretical basis for the application of CK as a glutamine metabolic inhibitor in TNBC treatment.

Highly Regioselective Biotransformation of Protopanaxadiol-type and Protopanaxatriol-type Ginsenosides in the Underground Parts of Panax notoginseng to 18 Minor Ginsenosides by Talaromyces flavus

The transformation of major ginsenosides to minor ginsenosides by microorganisms was considered to be an environmentally friendly method. Compared with GRAS (generally recognized as safe) strains, non-food-grade microorganisms could transform polar ginsenosides to various minor ginsenosides. In this study, Talaromyces flavus screened from the P. notoginseng rhizosphere was capable of transforming PPD-type and PPT-type ginsenosides in the underground parts of P. notoginseng to 18 minor ginsenosides. The transformation reactions invovled deglycosylation, epimerization, and dehydration. To the best of our knowledge, this transformation characteristic of T. flavus was first reported in fungi. Its crude enzyme can efficiently hydrolyze the outer glucose linked to C-20 and C-3 in major ginsenosides Rb₁, Rb₂, Rb₃, Rc, Rd, and 20(S)-Rg₃ within 48 h. The transformation of major ginsenosides to minor ginsenosides by T. flavus will help raise the functional and economic value of P. notoginseng.

Regulatory effect of Panax notoginseng saponins on the oxidative stress and histone acetylation induced by porcine circovirus type 2

Porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2) exists widely in swine populations worldwide, and healthy PCV2 virus carriers have enhanced the severity of the infection, which is becoming more difficult to control. This study investigated the regulatory effect of Panax notoginseng saponins (PNS) on the oxidative stress and histone acetylation modification induced by PCV2 in vitro and in mice. In vitro, PNS significantly increased the scavenging capacities of superoxide anion radicals (O2•-) and hydroxyl radicals (•OH) and reduced the content of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) induced by PCV2 in porcine alveolar macrophages (3D4/2). In addition, PNS decreased the protein expression level of histone H4 acetylation (Ac-H4) by increasing the activity of histone deacetylase (HDAC) in PCV2-infected 3D4/2 cells. In vivo, PNS enhanced the scavenging capacities of •OH and O2•- and reduced the content of H2O2 in the spleens of PCV2-infected mice. PNS also reduced the protein expression level of histone H3 acetylation (Ac-H3) by reducing the activity of histone acetylase (HAT) and increasing the activity of HDAC in the spleens of PCV2-infected mice. PCV2 infection activated oxidative stress and histone acetylation in vitro and in mice, but PNS ameliorated this oxidative stress. The research can provide experimental basis for exploring the antioxidant effect and the regulation of histone acetylation of PNS on PCV2-infected 3D4/2 cells and mice in vitro and in vivo, and provide new ideas for the treatment of PCV2 infection.

Advanced Glycosylation End Products Induced Synaptic Deficits and Cognitive Decline Through ROS-JNK-p53/miR-34c/SYT1 Axis in Diabetic Encephalopathy

Background: miR-34c has been found to be implicated in the pathological process of Alzheimer’s disease, diabetes, and its complications. Objective: To investigate the underlying mechanisms of miR-34c in the pathogenesis of diabetic encephalopathy (DE). Methods: Diabetes mellitus rats were developed by incorporating a high-fat diet and streptozotocin injection. Morris water maze test and novel object recognition test were used to assess the cognitive function of rats. Expression of miR-34c were detected by fluorescence in situ hybridization and qRT-PCR. Immunofluorescence and western blot were used to evaluate synaptotagmin 1 (SYT1) and AdipoR2 or other proteins. Golgi staining was performed to investigate dendritic spine density. Results: The increased miR-34c induced by advanced glycation end-products (AGEs) was mediated by ROS-JNK-p53 pathway, but not ROS-Rb-E2F1 pathway, in hippocampus of DE rats or in HT-22 cells. miR-34c negatively regulated the expression of SYT1, but not AdipoR2, in hippocampal neurons. miR-34c inhibitor rescued the AGE-induced decrease in the density of dendritic spines in primary hippocampal neurons. Administration of AM34c by the intranasal delivery increased the hippocampus levels of SYT1 and ameliorated the cognitive function in DE rats. The serum levels of miR-34c were increased in patients with DE comparing with normal controls. Conclusion: These results demonstrated that AGE-induced oxidative stress mediated increase of miR-34c through ROS-JNK-p53 pathway, resulting in synaptic deficits and cognitive decline by targeting SYT1 in DE, and the miR-34c/SYT1 axis could be considered as a novel therapeutic target for DE patients.

Systemic and Anticancer Potential of Adaptogenic Constituents Isolated from Traditional Herbs - A Mini-Review

Adaptogens were initially recognized as stress-resistance inducing compounds. Recent studies reveal that adaptogens are pleiotropically-acting chemical constituents that can be isolated from traditional herbs. They are gaining increasing attention in cancer chemotherapy. This review summarizes the physiological action of adaptogens isolated from the 9 most widely used traditional herbs implicated in cancer therapy viz., Withania somnifera, Tinospora cordifolia, Rhodiola rosea, Emblica officinalis, Glycyrrhiza glabra, Bacopa monnieri, Asparagus racemosus, Ocimum sanctum, and Panax notoginseng. The studies were identified through a systematic search of major computerized databases such as Pubmed, Embase, Medline, Inflibnet, Google Scholar, and Cochrane Library. Individual names of each herb and biological action were the search terms employed. In this review, we have enlisted the chemical constituents and their mechanism of action in a few organ systems as well as in cancer cells. Studies indicate that the adaptogens isolated from these herbs can be broadly arranged into 2 classes based on their chemical structure. These molecules exert a positive influence on several organ systems such as respiratory, nervous, cardiovascular, immune, and gastrointestinal tract. It is also clear that adaptogens act as effective chemopreventive agents alone or in combination with chemo drugs in multiple cancers by targeting multiple intracellular target proteins. Therefore, we conclude that adaptogens are versatile ligands capable of eliciting many systemic effects. Their biological functions are complex, varied, and context-dependent in various cancers. This offers great scope for personalized treatment and cancer chemoprevention in the future.

Recent Advances in Traditional Chinese Medicine for Treatment of Podocyte Injury

Podocyte is also called glomerular epithelial cell, which has been considered as the final gatekeeper of glomerular filtration barrier (GFB). As a major contributor to proteinuria, podocyte injury underlies a variety of glomerular diseases and becomes the challenge to patients and their families in general. At present, the therapeutic methods of podocyte injury mainly include angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors or angiotensin receptor blockers, steroid and immunosuppressive medications. Nevertheless, the higher cost and side effects seriously disturb patients with podocyte injury. Promisingly, traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) has received an increasing amount of attention from different countries in the treatment of podocyte injury by invigorating spleen and kidney, clearing heat and eliminating dampness, as well enriching qi and activating blood. Therefore, we searched articles published in peer-reviewed English-language journals through Google Scholar, PubMed, Web of Science, and Science Direct. The protective effects of active ingredients, herbs, compound prescriptions, acupuncture and moxibustion for treatment of podocyte injury were further summarized and analyzed. Meanwhile, we discussed feasible directions for future development, and analyzed existing deficiencies and shortcomings of TCM in the treatment of podocyte injury. In conclusion, this paper shows that TCM treatments can serve as promising auxiliary therapeutic methods for the treatment of podocyte injury.

Lipophilic Grape Seed Proanthocyanidin Exerts Anti-Cervical Cancer Effects in HeLa Cells and a HeLa-Derived Xenograft Zebrafish Model

Lipophilic grape seed proanthocyanidin (LGSP) synthesized from GSP and lauric acid exhibits an excellent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effect. However, its anti-cervical cancer activity is still unknown. In this study, the in vitro anti-cervical cancer activity of LGSP on HeLa cell lines was investigated by MTT assay, flow cytometry and Western blot analysis, and its effect was explored by a HeLa-derived xenograft zebrafish model. LGSP exhibited an excellent anti-proliferative effect on HeLa cells by increasing the level of reactive oxygen species, which further induced cell apoptosis and blocked cell cycle progression in the G2/M phase. LGSP-treated HeLa cells showed a reduction in mitochondrial membrane potential, upregulation of the Bax/Bcl-2 ratio, release of cytochrome c into the cytoplasm, and activation of cleaved caspase-9/3 and cleavage of PARP, thus indicating that LGSP induced apoptosis through the intrinsic mitochondrial/caspase-mediated pathway. In the zebrafish model, LGSP effectively suppressed the growth of a HeLa xenograft tumor. These data suggest that LGSP may be a good candidate for the prevention or treatment of cervical cancer.

Ginsenoside Rh4 Suppressed Metastasis of Lung Adenocarcinoma via Inhibiting JAK2/STAT3 Signaling

Lung adenocarcinoma (LAC) is a common lung cancer with a high malignancy that urgently needs to be treated with effective drugs. Ginsenoside Rh4 exhibits outstanding antitumor activities. However, few studies reported its effects on growth, metastasis and molecular mechanisms in LAC. Here, Rh4 is certified to show a strong anti-LAC efficiency in vitro and in vivo. Results of flow cytometry and Western blot are obtained to exhibited that Rh4 markedly restrained cellular proliferation and colony formation by arresting the cell cycle in the G1 phase. Results from a wound healing assay and transwell assays demonstrated that Rh4 is active in the antimigration and anti-invasion of LAC. The analysis of Western blot, immunofluorescence and RT-qPCR confirmed that Rh4 reverses the epithelial–mesenchymal transition (EMT) through upregulating the gene expression of E-cadherin and downregulating that of snail, N-cadherin and vimentin. In vivo results from immunohistochemistry show consistent trends with cellular studies. Furthermore, Rh4 suppresses the Janus kinases2/signal transducer and activator of the transcription3 (JAK2/STAT3) signaling pathway stimulated by TGF-β1. Silencing the STAT3 signal or co-treating with AG490 both enhanced the EMT attenuation caused by Rh4, which revealed that Rh4 suppressed EMT via inhibiting the JAK2/STAT3 signaling pathway. These findings explore the capacity and mechanism of Rh4 on the antimetastasis of LAC, providing evidence for Rh4 to LAC therapy.

Regulation of reactive oxygen species by phytochemicals for the management of cancer and diabetes

Cancer and diabetes mellitus are served as typical life-threatening diseases with common risk factors. Developing therapeutic measures in cancers and diabetes have aroused attention for a long time. However, the problems with conventional treatments are in challenge, including side effects, economic burdens, and patient compliance. It is essential to secure safe and efficient therapeutic methods to overcome these issues. As an alternative method, antioxidant and pro-oxidant properties of phytochemicals from edible plants have come to the fore. Phytochemicals are naturally occurring compounds, considered promising agent applicable in treatment of various diseases with beneficial effects. Either antioxidative or pro-oxidative activity of various phytochemicals were found to contribute to regulation of cell proliferation, differentiation, cell cycle arrest, and apoptosis, which can exert preventive and therapeutic effects against cancer and diabetes. In this article, the antioxidant or pro-oxidant effects and underlying mechanisms of flavonoids, alkaloids, and saponins in cancer or diabetic models demonstrated by the recent studies are summarized.