Therapeutics strategies against cancer stem cell in breast cancer

Mechanism insights into the pleiotropic effects of nobiletin as a potential therapeutic agent on non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD)

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is one of the most common liver diseases and is emerging as one of the fastest-growing causes of liver-related deaths worldwide. It is necessary to find strategies to effectively prevent and treat NAFLD, as no definitive drug has been approved. Nobiletin (NOB) is the critical active ingredient of Chinese herbal medicines such as Citrus aurantium and Citri Reticulatae Pericarpium, which have anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, lipid regulating, and insulin resistance regulating effects. Numerous studies have demonstrated that NOB can prevent and treat the onset and progression of NAFLD. In this review, the mechanisms of NOB for treating NAFLD have been summarized, hoping to provide a basis for subsequent studies of NOB and to provide a research ground for the development of therapeutic drugs for NAFLD.

Discovery of novel benzimidazole acyclic C-nucleoside DNA intercalators halting breast cancer growth

Breast cancer continues to be the most frequent cancer worldwide. In practice, successful clinical outcomes were achieved via targeting DNA. Along with the advances in introducing new DNA-targeting agents, the "sugar approach" design was employed herein to develop new intercalators bearing pharmacophoric motifs tethered to carbohydrate appendages. Accordingly, new benzimidazole acyclic C-nucleosides were rationally designed, synthesized and assayed via MTT (3-[4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl]-2,5 diphenyl tetrazolium bromide) assay to evaluate their cytotoxicity against MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells compared to normal fibroblasts (Wi-38), compared to doxorubicin. (1S,2R,3S,4R)-2-(1,2,3,4,5-Pentahydroxy)pentyl-1H-5,6-dichlorobenzimidazole 7 and (1S,2R,3S,4R)-2-(1,2,3,4,5-pentahydroxy)pentyl-1H-naphthimidazole 13 were the most potent and selective derivatives against MCF-7 (half-maximal inhibitory concentration [IC50 ] = 0.060 and 0.080 µM, selectivity index [SI] = 9.68 and 8.27, respectively) and MDA-MB-231 cells (IC50  = 0.299 and 0.166 µM, SI = 1.94 and 3.98, respectively). Thus, they were identified as the study hits for mechanistic studies. Both derivatives induced DNA damage at 0.24 and 0.29 μM, respectively. The DNA damage kinetics were studied compared to doxorubicin, where they both induced faster damage than doxorubicin. This indicated that 7 and 13 showed a more potent DNA-damaging effect than doxorubicin. Docking simulations within the DNA double strands highlighted the role of both the heterocyclic core and the sugar side chain in exhibiting key H-bond interactions with DNA bases.

Development of Piperazine- and Oxazine-Linked Pyrimidines as p65 Subunit Binders of NF-κB in Human Breast Cancer Cells

Nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) is a potential therapeutic target in breast cancer. In the current study, a new class of oxazine- and piperazine-linked pyrimidines was developed as inhibitors of NF-κB, overcoming the complexity of the oxazine structure found in nature and enabling synthesis under laboratory conditions. Among the series of synthesized and tested oxazine-pyrimidine and piperazine-pyrimidine derivatives, compounds 3a and 5b inhibited breast cancer cell (MCF-7) viability with an IC50 value of 9.17 and 6.29 µM, respectively. In silico docking studies showed that the pyrimidine ring of 3a and the 4-methoxybenzyl thiol group of 5b could strongly bind the p65 subunit of NF-κB, with the binding energies -9.32 and -7.32 kcal mol-1. Furthermore, compounds 3a and 5b inhibited NF-κB in MCF-7 breast cancer cells. In conclusion, we herein report newer structures that target NF-κB in BC cells.

Update on immune-based therapy strategies targeting cancer stem cells

Accumulating data reveals that tumors possess a specialized subset of cancer cells named cancer stem cells (CSCs), responsible for metastasis and recurrence of malignancies, with various properties such as self-renewal, heterogenicity, and capacity for drug resistance. Some signaling pathways or processes like Notch, epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT), Hedgehog (Hh), and Wnt, as well as CSCs' surface markers such as CD44, CD123, CD133, and epithelial cell adhesion molecule (EpCAM) have pivotal roles in acquiring CSCs properties. Therefore, targeting CSC-related signaling pathways and surface markers might effectively eradicate tumors and pave the way for cancer survival. Since current treatments such as chemotherapy and radiation therapy cannot eradicate all of the CSCs and tumor relapse may happen following temporary recovery, improving novel and more efficient therapeutic options to combine with current treatments is required. Immunotherapy strategies are the new therapeutic modalities with promising results in targeting CSCs. Here, we review the targeting of CSCs by immunotherapy strategies such as dendritic cell (DC) vaccines, chimeric antigen receptors (CAR)-engineered immune cells, natural killer-cell (NK-cell) therapy, monoclonal antibodies (mAbs), checkpoint inhibitors, and the use of oncolytic viruses (OVs) in pre-clinical and clinical studies. This review will mainly focus on blood malignancies but also describe solid cancers.

A divide and conquer approach to maximise deep learning mammography classification accuracies

Breast cancer claims 11,400 lives on average every year in the UK, making it one of the deadliest diseases. Mammography is the gold standard for detecting early signs of breast cancer, which can help cure the disease during its early stages. However, incorrect mammography diagnoses are common and may harm patients through unnecessary treatments and operations (or a lack of treatment). Therefore, systems that can learn to detect breast cancer on their own could help reduce the number of incorrect interpretations and missed cases. Various deep learning techniques, which can be used to implement a system that learns how to detect instances of breast cancer in mammograms, are explored throughout this paper. Convolution Neural Networks (CNNs) are used as part of a pipeline based on deep learning techniques. A divide and conquer approach is followed to analyse the effects on performance and efficiency when utilising diverse deep learning techniques such as varying network architectures (VGG19, ResNet50, InceptionV3, DenseNet121, MobileNetV2), class weights, input sizes, image ratios, pre-processing techniques, transfer learning, dropout rates, and types of mammogram projections. This approach serves as a starting point for model development of mammography classification tasks. Practitioners can benefit from this work by using the divide and conquer results to select the most suitable deep learning techniques for their case out-of-the-box, thus reducing the need for extensive exploratory experimentation. Multiple techniques are found to provide accuracy gains relative to a general baseline (VGG19 model using uncropped 512 × 512 pixels input images with a dropout rate of 0.2 and a learning rate of 1 × 10-3) on the Curated Breast Imaging Subset of DDSM (CBIS-DDSM) dataset. These techniques involve transfer learning pre-trained ImagetNet weights to a MobileNetV2 architecture, with pre-trained weights from a binarised version of the mini Mammography Image Analysis Society (mini-MIAS) dataset applied to the fully connected layers of the model, coupled with using weights to alleviate class imbalance, and splitting CBIS-DDSM samples between images of masses and calcifications. Using these techniques, a 5.6% gain in accuracy over the baseline model was accomplished. Other deep learning techniques from the divide and conquer approach, such as larger image sizes, do not yield increased accuracies without the use of image pre-processing techniques such as Gaussian filtering, histogram equalisation and input cropping.

Evaluation of the Possible Protective Role of Nobiletin against Arsenic-Induced Liver Damage in Male Albino Rats

Arsenic (As) is a toxic contaminant present in organic and inorganic forms in the environment. Nobiletin (NOB) is a polymethoxy flavone that has recently gained substantial consideration due to its curative impacts. The present experiment was conducted to assess the hepatoprotective efficiency of NOB on As-generated hepatotoxicity. Twenty-four adult rats were equally distributed into four groups and designated as control, As (50 mg/kg)-treated, As + NOB (50 mg/kg and 25 mg/kg, respectively), and NOB (25 mg/kg)-treated groups. After 30 days, experimental animals were decapitated, then blood and tissue samples were collected for further analysis. The group treated with As showed a significant decrease in the activity of antioxidant enzymes, including catalase (CAT), superoxide dismutase (SOD), peroxidase (POD), glutathione (GSH), glutathione reductase (GSR), and total antioxidant status (TAS), and a substantial increase in the accumulation of As in liver tissues, levels of total oxidant status (TOS), hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂), and lipid peroxidation (TBARS). Significant increases in alanine aminotransferase (ALT), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) levels were observed in As-treated rats. Moreover, nuclear factor (NF)-κB, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interleukin (IL)-1β, interleukin (IL)-6, and cyclo-oxygenase (COX)-2 activity, as well as the levels of pro-apoptotic markers (Bax, Caspase-3, and Caspase-9) were increased on exposure to As. In contrast, the anti-apoptotic marker (Bcl-2) level was significantly decreased. As administration showed a significant disturbance in hepatic tissue histology. However, cotreatment of NOB with As considerably increased the antioxidant enzyme activity, with a noteworthy reduction in the deposition of As in hepatic tissues, TBARS, and H₂O₂ levels. NOB-administrated rats showed considerable recovery in terms of inflammation, apoptosis, and histological damage. Hence, NOB can be considered a useful curative compound due to its medicinal properties against As-prompted hepatotoxicity.

Rhamnazin ameliorates 2, 3, 7, 8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin-evoked testicular toxicity by restoring biochemical, spermatogenic and histological profile in male albino rats

2,3,7,8 tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) is a potential environmental toxin that has the ability to affect male reproductive tract. Rhamnazin is a naturally present flavone that displays multiple medicinal properties. Therefore, the current study was designed to determine the mitigative role of rhamnazin against TCDD induced reproductive damage. 48 adult male albino rats were randomly separated into four groups: control, TCDD (10 µgkg-1), TCDD + rhamnazin (10 µgkg-1 + 5 mgkg-1 respectively) and rhamnazin (5 mgkg-1). The trial was conducted for 56 days. TCDD intoxication notably affected superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), glutathione reductase (GSR) and catalase (CAT) activities, besides reactive oxygen species (ROS) and malondialdehyde (MDA) concentrations were augmented. TCDD administration also lowered sperm motility, viability, sperm number, while it augmented the sperm morphological (tail, neck/midpiece and head) anomalies. Moreover, it decreased the levels of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH) and plasma testosterone. Moreover, TCDD reduced steroidogenic enzymes i.e., 17-beta hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (17β-HSD), steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (StAR) and 3-beta hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (3β-HSD) as well as B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl-2) expressions, but increased the expressions of Bcl-2-associated X protein (Bax) and cysteine-aspartic acid protease (Caspase-3). Furthermore, TCDD exposure also induced histopathological anomalies in testicular tissues. However, the supplementation of rhamnazin recovered all the mentioned damages in the testicles. The outcomes revealed that rhamnazin can ameliorate TCDD induced reproductive toxicity due to its anti-oxidant, anti-apoptotic and androgenic nature.

A Comprehensive Analysis and Anti-Cancer Activities of Quercetin in ROS-Mediated Cancer and Cancer Stem Cells

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) induce carcinogenesis by causing genetic mutations, activating oncogenes, and increasing oxidative stress, all of which affect cell proliferation, survival, and apoptosis. When compared to normal cells, cancer cells have higher levels of ROS, and they are responsible for the maintenance of the cancer phenotype; this unique feature in cancer cells may, therefore, be exploited for targeted therapy. Quercetin (QC), a plant-derived bioflavonoid, is known for its ROS scavenging properties and was recently discovered to have various antitumor properties in a variety of solid tumors. Adaptive stress responses may be induced by persistent ROS stress, allowing cancer cells to survive with high levels of ROS while maintaining cellular viability. However, large amounts of ROS make cancer cells extremely susceptible to quercetin, one of the most available dietary flavonoids. Because of the molecular and metabolic distinctions between malignant and normal cells, targeting ROS metabolism might help overcome medication resistance and achieve therapeutic selectivity while having little or no effect on normal cells. The powerful bioactivity and modulatory role of quercetin has prompted extensive research into the chemical, which has identified a number of pathways that potentially work together to prevent cancer, alongside, QC has a great number of evidences to use as a therapeutic agent in cancer stem cells. This current study has broadly demonstrated the function-mechanistic relationship of quercetin and how it regulates ROS generation to kill cancer and cancer stem cells. Here, we have revealed the regulation and production of ROS in normal cells and cancer cells with a certain signaling mechanism. We demonstrated the specific molecular mechanisms of quercetin including MAPK/ERK1/2, p53, JAK/STAT and TRAIL, AMPKα1/ASK1/p38, RAGE/PI3K/AKT/mTOR axis, HMGB1 and NF-κB, Nrf2-induced signaling pathways and certain cell cycle arrest in cancer cell death, and how they regulate the specific cancer signaling pathways as long-searched cancer therapeutics.

Targeting Gastric Cancer Stem Cells to Enhance Treatment Response

Gastric cancer (GC) was the fourth deadliest cancer in the world in 2020, and about 770,000 people died from GC that year. The death of patients with GC is mainly caused by the metastasis, recurrence, and chemotherapy resistance of GC cells. The cancer stem cell theory defines cancer stem cells (CSCs) as a key factor in the metastasis, recurrence, and chemotherapy resistance of cancer. It considers targeting gastric cancer stem cells (GCSCs) to be an effective method for the treatment of GC. For GCSCs, genes or noncoding RNAs are important regulatory factors. Many experimental studies have found that some drugs can target the stemness of gastric cancer by regulating these genes or noncoding RNAs, which may bring new directions for the clinical treatment of gastric cancer. Therefore, this review mainly discusses related genes or noncoding RNAs in GCSCs and drugs that target its stemness, thereby providing some information for the treatment of GC.

Notch signaling in female cancers: a multifaceted node to overcome drug resistance

Drug resistance is one of the main challenges in cancer therapy, including in the treatment of female-specific malignancies, which account for more than 60% of cancer cases among women. Therefore, elucidating the underlying molecular mechanisms is an urgent need in gynecological cancers to foster novel therapeutic approaches. Notably, Notch signaling, including either receptors or ligands, has emerged as a promising candidate given its multifaceted role in almost all of the hallmarks of cancer. Concerning the connection between Notch pathway and drug resistance in the afore-mentioned tumor contexts, several studies focused on the Notch-dependent regulation of the cancer stem cell (CSC) subpopulation or the induction of the epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT), both features implicated in either intrinsic or acquired resistance. Indeed, the present review provides an up-to-date overview of the published results on Notch signaling and EMT- or CSC-driven drug resistance. Moreover, other drug resistance-related mechanisms are examined such as the involvement of the Notch pathway in drug efflux and tumor microenvironment. Collectively, there is a long way to go before every facet will be fully understood; nevertheless, some small pieces are falling neatly into place. Overall, the main aim of this review is to provide strong evidence in support of Notch signaling inhibition as an effective strategy to evade or reverse resistance in female-specific cancers.

Zn(II) 5,5-Diethylbarbiturate Complex Selectively Induces Apoptosis in Breast Cancer and Breast Cancer Stem-Like Cells

The biological activities of Zn(II) compounds have been extensively studied in recent years. In this study, the growth suppressive effect of Zn(II) 5,5-diethylbarbiturate complex on MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 human breast cancer cells was determined by SRB and ATP viability assays and apoptosis-inducing effect by double staining method. Significant increase in cytokeratin 18 level, caspase 3/7 activity and annexin-V upregulation prove that Zn(II) complex has apoptotic effect in breast cancer cells. Intrinsic apoptosis pathway in MCF-7 cells and extrinsic apoptosis pathway in MDA-MB-231 cells was determined by Western blot (PARP, Cleave PARP, BAX, COX4, RIP, Caspase 8, Split Caspase 8, DR4 and B-Actin) and RT-PCR (PARP, Fas, Bcl-2, TNF10A, P53) analysis. No reduction of viability was found in MCF-710A healthy breast cells treated with Zn(II) complex. In breast cancer stem-like cells (MCF-7s), the Zn(II) complex was found to have a cytotoxic effect and to activate the apoptotic pathway. As a result, it was concluded that Zn(II) complex has anti-proliferative and apoptotic effects on breast cancer and breast cancer stem-like cells. Also this complex prevents the metastatic effect of cancer cells and does not effect to healthy cells so this complex has a specific effect on cancer cells. These findings might shed light on the discovery of new chemotherapeutic agents.

m6A Regulators Mediated Methylation Modification Patterns and Tumor Microenvironment Infiltration Characterization In Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma

Background

The role of RNA N6-methyladenosine (m6A) modification in tumor progression and metastasis has been demonstrated. Nonetheless, potential biological function of m6A modification patterns in nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) remains unknown.

Methods

The m6A modification patterns were comprehensively evaluated based on 26 m6A regulators in NPC, and m6A subtype and also m6A score were identified and systematically correlated with representative tumor characteristics.

Results

Two distinct m6A subtypes were determined and were highly consistent with immune activated and immune suppressed phenotypes, respectively. More representative m6A scores of individual tumors could predict tumor microenvironment (TME) infiltration, mRNA based stemness index (mRNAsi), EBV gene expression, genetic variation, and prognosis of NPC patients. Low m6A score, characterized by activation of immunity and suppression of mRNAsi and EBV gene, indicated an activated TME phenotype and better PFS and also lower risk of recurrence and metastasis. High m6A score, characterized by activation of Wnt and NF-κB signaling pathway and lack of effective immune infiltration, indicated an immune suppressed TME phenotype and poorer survival. Low m6A score was also correlated with increased tumor mutation burden (TMB) and better response to immunotherapy, and vice versa. A significant therapeutic advantage in patients with low m6A score was confirmed with an anti-PDL1 immunotherapy cohort.

Conclusions

m6A patterns played an important role in the diversity and complexity of TME. m6A score could be used to evaluate the m6A pattern of individual tumor to enhance our understanding of TME infiltration and guide more effective immunotherapy strategies.

Ameliorative effect of herbacetin against cyclophosphamide-induced nephrotoxicity in rats via attenuation of oxidative stress, inflammation, apoptosis and mitochondrial dysfunction

Herbacetin (HBN) is a glycosylated flavonoid, which possesses numerous pharmacological properties. Cyclophosphamide (CYC) is a chemotherapeutic drug that adversely affects the kidneys. The present investigation aimed to evaluate the curative potential of HBN against CYC-induced nephrotoxicity. Sprague Dawley rats ( n = 48) were randomly divided into four groups: control (0.1% DMSO + food), CYC (150 mg/kg b.wt.), CYC+HBN (150 + 40 mg/kg b.wt.), and HBN (40mg/kg b.wt.). CYC treatment significantly decreased the activities of antioxidant enzymes such as catalase (CAT), superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), and glutathione reductase (GSR) while elevating the concentration of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and malondialdehyde (MDA). Treatment with HBN significantly recovered the activity of CAT, SOD, GPx, and GSR while reducing the concentrations of ROS and MDA. Moreover, an increase in the level of renal functional markers, including Urea, creatinine, kidney injury molecule-1 (KIM-1), and neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL), and a decrease in creatinine clearance after CYC administration was recovered to control values by HBN treatment. Furthermore, HBN treatment normalized the increased levels of inflammatory markers such as nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), interleukin-6 (IL-6), inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) after CYC administration. Besides, HBN administration increased the expression of anti-apoptotic markers (Bcl-2) while decreasing the apoptotic markers (Bax and Caspase-3). Furthermore, HBN decreased the activities of tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle enzymes (ICDH, αKGDH, SDH, and MDH) as well as renal mitochondrial respiratory-chain complexes (I-IV) and repolarized mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨm). Additionally, HBN administration significantly protected against renal histological damage induced by CYC. In conclusion, CYC-induced toxicity was effectively ameliorated by the HBN administration. These results indicate that HBN might be considered as a potential protective agent against nephrotoxicity. The observed protection may be due to its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-apoptotic potential.

The Wnt/β-catenin pathway in breast cancer therapy: a pre-clinical perspective of its targeting for clinical translation

INTRODUCTION

Despite various treatments available, there is still a high mortality rate in breast cancer patients. Thus, there exists an unmet need for new therapeutic interventions. Studies show that the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway is involved in breast cancer metastasis because of its transcriptional control on epithelial to mesenchymal transition.

AREAS COVERED

This comprehensive review explores the Wnt signaling pathway as a potential target for treating breast cancer and other breast cancer subtypes. We discuss the Wnt signaling pathway, its role in breast cancer metastasis, and its effect on breast cancer stem cells. Further, endogenous agents that cause Wnt pathway inactivation are outlined. Finally, various natural and chemical compounds modulating the Wnt pathway used in pre-clinical or clinical trials for breast cancer treatment are discussed.

EXPERT OPINION

In vitro and in vivo studies indicate an immense potential of agents targeting the Wnt signaling pathway to prevent and manage breast cancer. Still, more clinical studies are required to support their use in humans. Apart from the agents already in clinical trials, several drug combinations discussed may be translated into clinical practice in a few years.

Celecoxib and dimethylcelecoxib block oxidative phosphorylation, epithelial-mesenchymal transition and invasiveness in breast cancer stem cells

BACKGROUND

Drug resistance and invasiveness developed by breast cancer stem cells (BCSC) are considered the major hurdles for successful cancer treatment. <P> Objective: As these two processes are highly energy-dependent, the identification of the main ATP supplier required for stem cell viability may result advantageous in the design of new therapeutic strategies to deter malignant carcinomas. <P> Methods: The energy metabolism (glycolysis and oxidative phosphorylation, OxPhos) was systematically analyzed by assessing relevant protein contents, enzyme activities and pathway fluxes in BCSC. Once identified the main ATP supplier, selective energy inhibitors and canonical breast cancer drugs were used to block stem cell viability and their metastatic properties. <P> Results: OxPhos and glycolytic protein contents, as well as HK and LDH activities were several times higher in BCSC than in their parental line, MCF-7 cells. However, CS, GDH, COX activities and both energy metabolism pathway fluxes were significantly lower (38-86%) in BCSC than in MCF-7 cells. OxPhos was the main ATP provider (>85%) in BCSC. Accordingly, oligomycin (a specific and potent canonical OxPhos inhibitor) and other non-canonical drugs with inhibitory effect on OxPhos (celecoxib, dimethylcelecoxib) significantly decreased BCSC viability, levels of epithelial-mesenchymal transition proteins, invasiveness, and induced ROS over-production, with IC50 values ranging from 1 to 20 µM in 24 h treatment. In contrast, glycolytic inhibitors (gossypol, iodoacetic acid, 3-bromopyruvate, 2-deoxyglucose) and canonical chemotherapeutic drugs (paclitaxel, doxorubicin, cisplatin) were much less effective against BCSC viability (IC50> 100 µM). <P> Conclusion: These results indicated that the use of some NSAIDs may be a promising alternative therapeutic strategy to target BCSC.

Synthesis of α,β-unsaturated benzotriazolyl-1,3,4-oxadiazole derivatives: anticancer activity, cytotoxicity, and cell imaging

A series of ten α,β-unsaturated benzotriazolyl-1,3,4-oxadiazole derivatives was synthesized and all compounds were evaluated in vitro against three breast cancer cell lines (MCF-7, MDA-MB-231 and 4T1) at different concentrations (0.1, 0.5, 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 mg/mL). The results showed that compounds 6a, 6c, 6d, 6f, 6g, and 6i displayed acceptable anticancer activity, where compound 6f was the most active on the three cell lines (IC50 = 0.80, 0.07, and 0.30 mg/mL, respectively). Regarding the cytotoxicity assay, the compounds exhibited modest toxicity on murine splenocytes and peripheral human blood cells at the highest concentration tested (5 mg/mL). Compound 6f was further evaluated at different concentrations showing moderate cytotoxicity at the 5 mg/mL concentration and negligible cytotoxicity at the minimum concentration evaluated (0.05 mg/mL). Finally, the compounds 6a, 6c, 6d, 6f, 6g, 6i, and 6j were evaluated as fluorescence markers due to their ability to be internalized into MCF-7 cells.

The many facets of Notch signaling in breast cancer: toward overcoming therapeutic resistance

In this review, Nandi et al. revisit the mechanisms by which Notch receptors and ligands contribute to normal mammary gland development and breast tumor progression. The authors also discuss combinatorial approaches aimed at disrupting Notch- and TME-mediated resistance that may improve prognosis in breast cancer patients.

Breast cancer is the second leading cause of cancer-related death in women and is a complex disease with high intratumoral and intertumoral heterogeneity. Such heterogeneity is a major driving force behind failure of current therapies and development of resistance. Due to the limitations of conventional therapies and inevitable emergence of acquired drug resistance (chemo and endocrine) as well as radio resistance, it is essential to design novel therapeutic strategies to improve the prognosis for breast cancer patients. Deregulated Notch signaling within the breast tumor and its tumor microenvironment (TME) is linked to poor clinical outcomes in treatment of resistant breast cancer. Notch receptors and ligands are also important for normal mammary development, suggesting the potential for conserved signaling pathways between normal mammary gland development and breast cancer. In this review, we focus on mechanisms by which Notch receptors and ligands contribute to normal mammary gland development and breast tumor progression. We also discuss how complex interactions between cancer cells and the TME may reduce treatment efficacy and ultimately lead to acquired drug or radio resistance. Potential combinatorial approaches aimed at disrupting Notch- and TME-mediated resistance that may aid in achieving in an improved patient prognosis are also highlighted.

Yuanhuacine Is a Potent and Selective Inhibitor of the Basal-Like 2 Subtype of Triple Negative Breast Cancer with Immunogenic Potential

The heterogeneity of triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) has led to efforts to further subtype this disease with the hope of identifying new molecular liabilities and drug targets. Furthermore, the finding that TNBC is the most inherently immunogenic type of breast cancer provides the potential for effective treatment with immune checkpoint inhibitors and immune adjuvants. Thus, we devised a dual screen to identify compounds from natural product extracts with TNBC subtype selectivity that also promote the expression of cytokines associated with antitumor immunity. These efforts led to the identification of yuanhuacine (1) as a potent and highly selective inhibitor of the basal-like 2 (BL2) subtype of TNBC that also promoted an antitumor associated cytokine signature in immune cells. The mechanism of action of yuanhuacine for both phenotypes depends on activation of protein kinase C (PKC), defining a novel target for the treatment of this clinical TNBC subtype. Yuanhuacine showed potent antitumor efficacy in animals bearing BL2 tumors further demonstrating that PKC could function as a potential pharmacological target for the treatment of the BL2 subtype of TNBC.

CD2+ T-helper 17-like cells differentiated from a CD133+ subpopulation of non-small cell lung carcinoma cells promote the growth of lung carcinoma

Background

Cancer stem cells (CSCs) give rise to a diverse variety of differentiated cells, which comprise the bulk of the tumor microenvironment (TME). However, the exact multi-directional differentiation potential of CSCs has not been fully clarified. This study was designed to explore whether CSCs differentiate into cellular components of the TME to promote the growth of lung carcinoma.

Methods

The present of CD133⁺, CD2⁺, and CD133⁺CD2⁺ cells in both clinical lung adenocarcinoma tissue and non-small cell lung carcinoma (NSCLC) cell lines were monitored using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) Array, flow cytometry (FCM), quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) and immunohistofluorescence (IF). Stem-like properties of CD133⁺ cells and CD2⁺ cells were detected by sphere formation assay, IF, and western blot. Colony formation and xenograft tumors experiments were performed to assess the malignant behaviors of CD2⁺ cells. The differentiation of CD133⁺ cells to CD2⁺ Th17-like cells was observed by FCM. The interleukin (IL)-2/phosphorylated signal transducer and activator of transcription protein 5 (pSTAT5)/retinoic acid receptor-related orphan receptor gamma t (RORγt) signaling pathway was evaluated by western blot and FCM.

Results

We found that CD133⁺ cells within both clinical lung adenocarcinoma tissue and NSCLC cell lines included a subset of CD2-expressing cells, which were correlated with the grade of malignancy (r=0.7835, P<0.01) and exhibited stem-like properties. Then, we determined the tumorigenic effects of CD2 on the growth of transplanted Lewis lung carcinoma cells (LLC1) in C57/BL6 mice. The results indicated that CD2⁺ cells were effective in promoting tumor growth in vivo (P<0.01). Furthermore, we obtained direct evidence of an ability of CD133⁺ cells to transform to T-helper 17-like cells via an intermediate CD133⁺CD2⁺ progenitor cell that is able to secrete IL-17A and IL-23. Furthermore, we found that IL-2 can inhibit the production of T-helper 17-like cells (P<0.001) by modulating the activation of STAT5 signaling pathways to downregulate the expression of RORγt (P<0.001).

Conclusions

Our data demonstrates that Th17-like cells generated from CSCs support cancer progression. These findings enrich the definition of multidirectional differentiation potential of CSCs and improve the understanding of the role of CSCs in cancer progression, which aids the improvement and creation of therapies.

Nanosized Drug Delivery Systems for Breast Cancer Stem Cell Targeting

Breast cancer stem cells (BCSCs), also known as breast cancer initiating cells, are reported to be responsible for the initiation, progression, therapeutic resistance, and relapse of breast cancer. Conventional therapeutic agents mainly kill the bulk of breast tumor cells and fail to eliminate BCSCs, even enhancing the fraction of BCSCs in breast tumors sometimes. Therefore, it is essential to develop specific and effective methods of eliminating BCSCs that will enhance the efficacy of killing breast tumor cells and thereby, increase the survival rates and quality of life of breast cancer patients. Despite the availability of an increasing number of anti-BCSC agents, their clinical translations are hindered by many issues, such as instability, low bioavailability, and off-target effects. Nanosized drug delivery systems (NDDSs) have the potential to overcome the drawbacks of anti-BCSC agents by providing site-specific delivery and enhancing of the stability and bioavailability of the delivered agents. In this review, we first briefly introduce the strategies and agents used against BCSCs and then highlight the mechanism of action and therapeutic efficacy of several state-of-the-art NDDSs that can be used to treat breast cancer by eliminating BCSCs.

Mesenchymal Stem Cell-Secreted Extracellular Vesicles Instruct Stepwise Dedifferentiation of Breast Cancer Cells into Dormancy at the Bone Marrow Perivascular Region

In the bone marrow (BM), breast cancer cells (BCC) can survive in dormancy for decades as cancer stem cells (CSC), resurging as tertiary metastasis. The endosteal region where BCCs exist as CSCs poses a challenge to target them, mostly due to the coexistence of endogenous hematopoietic stem cells. This study addresses the early period of dormancy when BCCs enter BM at the perivascular region to begin the transition into CSCs, which we propose as the final step in dormancy. A two-step process comprises the Wnt-β-catenin pathway mediating BCC dedifferentiation into CSCs at the BM perivascular niche. At this site, BCCs responded to two types of mesenchymal stem cell (MSC)-released extracellular vesicles (EV) that may include exosomes. Early released EVs began the transition into cycling quiescence, DNA repair, and reorganization into distinct BCC subsets. After contact with breast cancer, the content of EVs changed (primed) to complete dedifferentiation into a more homogeneous population with CSC properties. BCC progenitors (Oct4alo), which are distant from CSCs in a hierarchical stratification, were sensitive to MSC EVs. Despite CSC function, Oct4alo BCCs expressed multipotent pathways similar to CSCs. Oct4alo BCCs dedifferentiated and colocalized with MSCs (murine and human BM) in vivo. Overall, these findings elucidate a mechanism of early dormancy at the BM perivascular region and provide evidence of epigenome reorganization as a potential new therapy for breast cancer. SIGNIFICANCE: These findings describe how the initial process of dormancy and dedifferentiation of breast cancer cells at the bone marrow perivascular niche requires mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes, indicating a potential target for therapeutic intervention.

Sulfur-Coordinated Organoiridium(III) Complexes Exert Breast Anticancer Activity via Inhibition of Wnt/β-Catenin Signaling

The sulfur-coordinated organoiridium(III) complexes pbtIrSS and ppyIrSS, which contain C,N and S,S (dithione) chelating ligands, were found to inhibit breast cancer tumorigenesis and metastasis by targeting Wnt/β-catenin signaling for the first time. Treatment with pbtIrSS and ppyIrSS induces the degradation of LRP6, thereby decreasing the protein levels of DVL2, β-catenin and activated β-catenin, resulting in downregulation of Wnt target genes CD44 and survivin. Additionally, pbtIrSS and ppyIrSS can suppress cell migration and invasion of breast cancer cells. Furthermore, both complexes show the ability to inhibit sphere formation and mediate the stemness properties of breast cancer cells. Importantly, pbtIrSS exerts potent anti-tumor and anti-metastasis effects in mouse xenograft models through the blockage of Wnt/β-catenin signaling. Taken together, our results indicate that pbtIrSS has great potential to be developed as a breast cancer therapeutic agent with a novel mechanism.

Spindle and kinetochore‑associated complex subunit 3 accelerates breast cancer cell proliferation and invasion through the regulation of Akt/Wnt/β-catenin signaling

PURPOSE

Spindle and kinetochore‑associated complex subunit 3 (SKA3) has recently been identified as a novel regulator of carcinogenesis in multiple types of cancers. However, the function and potential regulatory mechanisms of SKA3 in breast cancer remain poorly understood. The present study was designed to gain a detailed relevance of SKA3 in breast cancer.

METHODS

Expression of SKA3 in breast cancer was examined via real-time quantitative PCR, western blotting and immunohistochemistry analysis. Malignant behaviors of breast cancer cells were investigated via cell counting kit-8, cell apoptosis, and transwell invasion assays. The activity of Wnt/β-catenin signaling was monitored via luciferase reporter assay. The tumorigenicity of breast cancer cells in vivo was assessed via xenograft tumor assay.

RESULTS

SKA3 expression was elevated in breast cancer tissue and was correlated with shorter survival rates in breast cancer patients. Knockdown of SKA3 caused marked reductions in cellular proliferation and invasion in breast cancer cells, whereas SKA3 overexpression accelerated proliferation and invasion. Knockdown of SKA3 resulted in decreased Akt and glycogen synthase kinase-3β phosphorylation, and decreased expression of active β-catenin, which lead to the inactivation of Wnt/β-catenin signaling. Inhibition of Akt significantly reversed the SKA3 overexpression-induced activation of Wnt/β-catenin signaling. Inhibition of Wnt/β-catenin signaling markedly abrogated SKA3 overexpression-induced tumor-promotion effects, while re-activation of Wnt/β-catenin signaling significantly reversed SKA3 knockdown-mediated tumor-inhibition effects. Knockdown of SKA3 resulted in a significant decrease in breast cancer tumor formation in vivo.

CONCLUSIONS

SKA3 accelerates proliferation and invasion in breast cancer through the modulation of Akt/Wnt/β-catenin signaling.

Trailblazing perspectives on targeting breast cancer stem cells

Breast cancer (BCa) is one of the most prevalent malignant tumors affecting women's health worldwide. The recurrence and metastasis of BCa have made it a long-standing challenge to achieve remission-persistent or disease-undetectable clinical outcomes. Cancer stem cells (CSCs) possess the ability to self-renew and generate heterogeneous tumor bulk. The existence of CSCs has been found to be vital in the initiation, metastasis, therapy resistance, and recurrence of tumors across cancer types. Because CSCs grow slowly in their dormant state, they are insensitive to conventional chemotherapies; however, when CSCs emerge from their dormant state and become clinically evident, they usually acquire genetic traits that make them resistant to existing therapies. Moreover, CSCs also show evidence of acquired drug resistance in synchrony with tumor relapses. The concept of CSCs provides a new treatment strategy for BCa. In this review, we highlight the recent advances in research on breast CSCs and their association with epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), circulating tumor cells (CTCs), plasticity of tumor cells, tumor microenvironment (TME), T-cell modulatory protein PD-L1, and non-coding RNAs. On the basis that CSCs are associated with multiple dysregulated biological processes, we envisage that increased understanding of disease sub-classification, selected combination of conventional treatment, molecular aberration directed therapy, immunotherapy, and CSC targeting/sensitizing strategy might improve the treatment outcome of patients with advanced BCa. We also discuss novel perspectives on new drugs and therapeutics purposing the potent and selective expunging of CSCs.

Adipocytokines visfatin and resistin in breast cancer: Clinical relevance, biological mechanisms, and therapeutic potential

Obesity is one of the major modifiable risk factors in breast cancer, with obese adipose tissue showing a pathological role in breast cancer development and malignancy via the release of secretory factors, such as proinflammatory cytokines and adipocytokines. The current article focuses on visfatin and resistin, two such adipocytokines that have emerged over the last two decades as leading breast cancer promoting factors in obesity. The clinical association of circulating visfatin and resistin with breast cancer and their biological mechanisms are reviewed, in addition to their role in the context of tumor-stromal interactions in the breast cancer microenvironment. Recent findings have unraveled several mediators of visfatin and resistin that are involved in the crosstalk between breast cancer cells and adipose tissue in the breast tumor microenvironment, including growth differentiation factor 15 (GDF15), interleukin 6 (IL-6), and toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4). Finally, current therapeutics targeting visfatin and resistin and their respective pathways are discussed, including future therapeutic strategies such as new drug design or neutralizing peptides that target extracellular visfatin or resistin. These hold promise in the development of novel breast cancer therapies and are of increasing relevance as the prevalence of obesity-related breast cancer increases worldwide.

Coriolic Acid (13-(S)-Hydroxy-9Z, 11E-octadecadienoic Acid) from Glasswort (Salicornia herbacea L.) Suppresses Breast Cancer Stem Cell through the Regulation of c-Myc

Cancer stem cells have certain characteristics, such as self-renewal, differentiation, and drug resistance, which are related to tumor progression, maintenance, recurrence, and metastasis. In our study, we targeted breast cancer stem cells (BCSCs) using a natural compound, coriolic acid, from Salicornia herbacea L. This compound was isolated by mammosphere formation inhibition bioassay-guided fractionation and identified by using NMR spectroscopy and electrospray ionization mass spectrometry. Coriolic acid inhibited the formation of mammospheres and induced BCSC apoptosis. It also decreased the subpopulation of CD44^high/CD24^low cells, a cancer stem cell (CSC) phenotype, and specific genes related to CSCs, such as Nanog,Oct4, and CD44. Coriolic acid decreased the transcriptional and translational levels of the c-Myc gene, which is a CSC survival factor. These results indicated that coriolic acid could be a novel compound to target BCSCs via regulation of c-Myc.

Nanoparticle enhanced combination therapy for stem-like progenitors defined by single-cell transcriptomics in chemotherapy-resistant osteosarcoma

The adaptation of osteosarcoma cells to therapeutic pressure impedes the efficacy of chemotherapy for osteosarcoma. However, the characteristics and cellular organization of therapy-resistant cells in osteosarcoma tumors remain elusive. Here, we utilized single-cell transcriptomics to systematically map the cell-type-specific gene expression in a chemotherapy-resistant osteosarcoma tumor. Our data demonstrated the VEGFR2-JMJD3-abundant subsets as quiescent stem-like cells, thereby establishing the hierarchy of therapy-resistant actively cycling progenitor pools (JMJD3-abundant) in osteosarcoma. VEGFR2 inhibitor and JMJD3 inhibitor synergistically impeded osteosarcoma cell propagation and tumor growth. Although osteosarcoma cells are predisposed to apoptosis induced by the synergistic therapy through activation of the CHOP pro-apoptotic factor via the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, the stem-like/progenitor cells exhibit an adaptive response, leading to their survival. Reduction in cellular glutathione levels in stem-like/progenitor cells caused by the treatment with a glutathione synthesis inhibitor increases ER stress-induced apoptosis. Importantly, the marked therapeutic improvement of synergistic therapy against stem-like/progenitor cells was achieved by using glutathione-scavenging nanoparticles, which can load and release the drug pair effectively. Overall, our study provides a framework for understanding glutathione signaling as one of the therapeutic vulnerabilities of stem-like/progenitor cells. Broadly, these findings revealed a promising arsenal by encapsulating glutathione-scavenging nanoparticles with co-targeting VEGFR2 and JMJD3 to eradicate chemotherapy-resistant osteosarcoma.

DNA methyltransferase mediates the hypermethylation of the microRNA 34a promoter and enhances the resistance of patient-derived pancreatic cancer cells to molecular targeting agents

DNA methyltransferase (DNMT) participates in the transformation or progression of human cancers by mediating the hypermethylation of cancer suppressors. However, the regulatory role of DNMT in pancreatic cancer cells remains poorly understood. In the present study, we demonstrated that DNMT1 repressed the expression of microRNA 34a (miR-34a) and enhanced the activation of the Notch pathway by mediating the hypermethylation of the miR-34a promoter. In patients with pancreatic cancer, the expression levels of DNMT1 were negatively related with those of miR-34a. Mechanistically, knockdown of DNMT1 decreased the methylation of the miR-34a promoter and enhanced the expression of miR-34a to inhibit the activation of the Notch pathway. Downregulation of the Notch pathway via the DNMT1/miR-34a axis significantly enhanced the sensitivity of pancreatic cells to molecular targeting agents. Therefore, the results of our study suggest that downregulation of DNMT enhances the expression of miR-34a and may be a potential therapeutic target for pancreatic cancer.

Top Notch Targeting Strategies in Cancer: A Detailed Overview of Recent Insights and Current Perspectives

Evolutionarily conserved Notch plays a critical role in embryonic development and cellular self-renewal. It has both tumour suppressor and oncogenic activity, the latter of which is widely described. Notch-activating mutations are associated with haematological malignancies and several solid tumours including breast, lung and adenoid cystic carcinoma. Moreover, upregulation of Notch receptors and ligands and aberrant Notch signalling is frequently observed in cancer. It is involved in cancer hallmarks including proliferation, survival, migration, angiogenesis, cancer stem cell renewal, metastasis and drug resistance. It is a key component of cell-to-cell interactions between cancer cells and cells of the tumour microenvironment, such as endothelial cells, immune cells and fibroblasts. Notch displays diverse crosstalk with many other oncogenic signalling pathways, and may drive acquired resistance to targeted therapies as well as resistance to standard chemo/radiation therapy. The past 10 years have seen the emergence of different classes of drugs therapeutically targeting Notch including receptor/ligand antibodies, gamma secretase inhibitors (GSI) and most recently, the development of Notch transcription complex inhibitors. It is an exciting time for Notch research with over 70 cancer clinical trials registered and the first-ever Phase III trial of a Notch GSI, nirogacestat, currently at the recruitment stage.

β1,4-Galactosyltransferase V Modulates Breast Cancer Stem Cells through Wnt/β-catenin Signaling Pathway

PURPOSE

Breast cancer stem cells (BCSCs) contribute to the initiation, development, and recurrence of breast carcinomas. β1,4-Galactosyltransferase V (B4GalT5), which catalyzes the addition of galactose to GlcNAcβ1-4Man of N-glycans, is involved in embryogenesis. However, its role in the modulation of BCSCs remains unknown.

Materials and Methods

The relationship between B4GalT5 and breast cancer stemness was investigated by online clinical databases and immunohistochemistry analysis. Mammosphere formation, fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS), and in-vivo assays were used to evaluate B4GalT5 expression in BCSCs and its effect on BCSCs. B4GalT5 regulation of Wnt/β-catenin signaling was examined by immunofluorescence and Ricinus communis agglutinin I pull-down assays. Cell surface biotinylation and FACS assays were performed to assess the association of cell surface B4GalT5 and BCSCs.

RESULTS

B4GalT5, but not other B4GalTs, was highly correlated with BCSC markers and poor prognosis. B4GalT5 significantly increased the stem cell marker aldehyde dehydrogenase 1A1 (ALDH1A1) and promoted the production of CD44+CD24-/low cells and the formation of mammospheres. Furthermore, B4GalT5 overexpression resulted in dramatic tumor growth in vivo. Mechanistically, B4GalT5 modified and protected Frizzled-1 from degradation via the lysosomal pathway, promoting Wnt/β-catenin signaling which was hyperactivated in BCSCs. B4GalT5, located on the surface of a small subset of breast carcinoma cells, was not responsible for the stemness of BCSCs.

CONCLUSION

B4GalT5 modulates the stemness of breast cancer through glycosylation modification to stabilize Frizzled-1 and activate Wnt/β-catenin signaling independent of its cell surface location. Our studies highlight a previously unknown role of B4GalT5 in regulating the stemness of breast cancer and provide a potential drug target for anticancer drug development.

Recent Advances in Targeting of Breast Cancer Stem Cells Based on Biological Concepts and Drug Delivery System Modification

Breast cancer with various biological diversity known as the common reason of death in the world and despite progress in novel therapeutic approaches, it faced with failure and recurrence in general. Recent clinical and preclinical statistics support cancer stem cells (CSCs) hypothesis and its similarities with normal stem cells. Evaluation of related paper conclude in significance finding in the further characterization of CSCs biology such as surface biomarkers, microenvironment regulatory molecules, cell signaling pathways, cell to cell transition and drug efflux pumps to overcome multidrug resistance and effective therapy. Emerging novel data indicate biological concepts in the base of unsuccessful treatment. A powerful understanding of the cell signaling pathways in cancer and CSCs topics can be led us to define and control treatment problems in cancer. More recently nano medicine based on drug delivery system modification and new implications on combinatorial therapy have been used to treat breast cancer effectively. The aim of this review is focus on CSCs as a potential target of cancer therapy, to overcome the limitation and problems of current therapeutic strategies in cancer.

Mushroom extracts and compounds with suppressive action on breast cancer: evidence from studies using cultured cancer cells, tumor-bearing animals, and clinical trials

This article reviews mushrooms with anti-breast cancer activity. The mushrooms covered which are better known include the following: button mushroom Agaricus bisporus, Brazilian mushroom Agaricus blazei, Amauroderma rugosum, stout camphor fungus Antrodia camphorata, Jew's ear (black) fungus or black wood ear fungus Auricularia auricula-judae, reishi mushroom or Lingzhi Ganoderma lucidum, Ganoderma sinense, maitake mushroom or sheep's head mushroom Grifola frondosa, lion's mane mushroom or monkey head mushroom Hericium erinaceum, brown beech mushroom Hypsizigus marmoreus, sulfur polypore mushroom Laetiporus sulphureus, Lentinula edodes (shiitake mushroom), Phellinus linteus (Japanese "meshimakobu," Chinese "song gen," Korean "sanghwang," American "black hoof mushroom"), abalone mushroom Pleurotus abalonus, king oyster mushroom Pleurotus eryngii, oyster mushroom Pleurotus ostreatus, tuckahoe or Fu Ling Poria cocos, and split gill mushroom Schizophyllum commune. Antineoplastic effectiveness in human clinical trials and mechanism of anticancer action have been reported for Antrodia camphorata, Cordyceps sinensis, Coriolus versicolor, Ganoderma lucidum, Grifola frondosa, and Lentinula edodes.

The Role of Exosomal microRNA in Cancer Drug Resistance

Exosomes affect the initiation and progression of cancers. In the tumor microenvironment, not only cancer cells, but also fibroblasts and immunocytes secrete exosomes. Exosomes act as a communicator between cells by transferring different cargos and microRNAs (miRNAs). Drug resistance is one of the critical factors affecting therapeutic effect in the course of cancer treatment. The currently known mechanisms of drug resistance include drug efflux, alterations in drug metabolism, DNA damage repair, alterations of energy programming, cancer stem cells and epigenetic changes. Many studies have shown that miRNA carried by exosomes is closely associated with the development of drug resistance mediated by the above-mentioned mechanisms. This review article will discuss how exosomal miRNAs regulate the drug resistance.

Novel multifunctional triple folic acid, biotin and CD44 targeting pH-sensitive nano-actiniaes for breast cancer combinational therapy

In this study, novel multifunctional folic acid, biotin, and CD44 receptors targeted and pH-sensitive “nano-actiniaes” were fabricated with icariin (ICA) and curcumin (Cur) as loaded model drugs for breast cancer therapy. The newly synthesized polymer oligomeric hyaluronic acid-hydrazone bond-folic acid-biotin (Bio-oHA-Hyd-FA) was characterized by ¹H NMR spectrogram (proton nuclear magnetic resonance). The obtained drug carrier Bio-oHA-Hyd-FA self-assembled into nanomicelles, named as “nano-actiniaes”, in aqueous media with hydrodynamic diameter of 162.7 ± 5 nm. The size, surface zeta potential, and morphology of the “nano-actiniaes” were observed via TEM. The in vitro release experiment indicated that much more encapsulated icariin (ICA) and curcumin (Cur) were released from the Bio-oHA-Hyd-FA micelles (nano-actiniaes) in the acidic environment. Additionally, the cytotoxicity research demonstrated that the Bio-oHA-Hyd-FA carrier material was completely nontoxic, and the ICA&Cur “nano-actiniaes” had greater cytotoxicity compared with other control groups. In addition, the “nano-actiniaes” were found to significantly inhibit cancer cell invasion by Transwell assay. Moreover, in vivo evaluation of anti-tumor effect illustrated that the ICA and Cur “nano-actiniaes” possessed inhibitory effect on tumors. Consequently, the multi-targeted pH-sensitive “nano-actiniaes” can realize significant tumor targeting and effectively inhibit tumor growth.

Inflammation and Metabolism in Cancer Cell-Mitochondria Key Player

Cancer metabolism is an essential aspect of tumorigenesis, as cancer cells have increased energy requirements in comparison to normal cells. Thus, an enhanced metabolism is needed in order to accommodate tumor cells' accelerated biological functions, including increased proliferation, vigorous migration during metastasis, and adaptation to different tissues from the primary invasion site. In this context, the assessment of tumor cell metabolic pathways generates crucial data pertaining to the mechanisms through which tumor cells survive and grow in a milieu of host defense mechanisms. Indeed, various studies have demonstrated that the metabolic signature of tumors is heterogeneous. Furthermore, these metabolic changes induce the exacerbated production of several molecules, which result in alterations that aid an inflammatory milieu. The therapeutic armentarium for oncology should thus include metabolic and inflammation regulators. Our expanding knowledge of the metabolic behavior of tumor cells, whether from solid tumors or hematologic malignancies, may provide the basis for the development of tailor-made cancer therapies.