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Li P, Lu YJ, Chen H, Day B. The Lifecycle of the Plant Immune System. CRITICAL REVIEWS IN PLANT SCIENCES 2020; 39:72-100. [PMID: 33343063 PMCID: PMC7748258 DOI: 10.1080/07352689.2020.1757829] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Throughout their life span, plants confront an endless barrage of pathogens and pests. To successfully defend against biotic threats, plants have evolved a complex immune system responsible for surveillance, perception, and the activation of defense. Plant immunity requires multiple signaling processes, the outcome of which vary according to the lifestyle of the invading pathogen(s). In short, these processes require the activation of host perception, the regulation of numerous signaling cascades, and transcriptome reprograming, all of which are highly dynamic in terms of temporal and spatial scales. At the same time, the development of a single immune event is subjective to the development of plant immune system, which is co-regulated by numerous processes, including plant ontogenesis and the host microbiome. In total, insight into each of these processes provides a fuller understanding of the mechanisms that govern plant-pathogen interactions. In this review, we will discuss the "lifecycle" of plant immunity: the development of individual events of defense, including both local and distal processes, as well as the development and regulation of the overall immune system by ontogenesis regulatory genes and environmental microbiota. In total, we will integrate the output of recent discoveries and theories, together with several hypothetical models, to present a dynamic portrait of plant immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pai Li
- Department of Plant Biology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
- Department of Plant, Soil and Microbial Sciences, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
| | - Yi-Ju Lu
- Department of Plant, Soil and Microbial Sciences, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
| | - Huan Chen
- Department of Plant, Soil and Microbial Sciences, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
- Graduate Program in Genetics and Genome Sciences, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
| | - Brad Day
- Department of Plant, Soil and Microbial Sciences, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
- Graduate Program in Genetics and Genome Sciences, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
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Chee FP, Chen CA, Chang JHW, Choo YY, Dayou J. Data Acquisition System for In Situ Monitoring of Chemoelectrical Potential in Living Plant Fuel Cells. JOURNAL OF BIOPHYSICS (HINDAWI PUBLISHING CORPORATION : ONLINE) 2016; 2016:6108056. [PMID: 27660638 PMCID: PMC5021909 DOI: 10.1155/2016/6108056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2016] [Revised: 07/26/2016] [Accepted: 08/04/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Photosynthesis process in plants generates numerous sources of bioenergy. However, only a small fraction is readily exploited for electrical energy. The impact of environmental factors is one of the significant physiological influences on the electrical potential of the plants. Hence, we developed a data acquisition (DAQ) system for instantaneous monitoring of electrical potential in plants and Aloe vera was used as a plant sample. The static response characterization, capability index (P/T), and Pearson's coefficient of correlation procedures were applied to assess the reliability of the obtained data. This developed system offers the capability of in situ monitoring and detecting gradual changes in the electrical potential of plants up to a correlational strength of greater than 0.7. Interpretation of the electrical signal mechanisms in the Aloe vera plant and the optimization of the electricity can be achieved through the application of this monitoring system. This system, therefore, can serve as a tool to measure and analyze the electrical signals in plants at different conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fuei Pien Chee
- Energy, Vibration and Sound Research Group (e-VIBS), Faculty of Science and Natural Resources, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Jalan UMS, 88400 Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia
| | - Cheng Ann Chen
- Faculty of Resource Science and Technology, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, 94300 Kota Samarahan, Sarawak, Malaysia
- Borneo Marine Research Institute, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Jalan UMS, 88400 Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia
| | - Jackson Hian Wui Chang
- Preparatory Center for Science and Technology, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Jalan UMS, 88400 Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia
| | - Ying Ying Choo
- Energy, Vibration and Sound Research Group (e-VIBS), Faculty of Science and Natural Resources, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Jalan UMS, 88400 Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia
| | - Jedol Dayou
- Energy, Vibration and Sound Research Group (e-VIBS), Faculty of Science and Natural Resources, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Jalan UMS, 88400 Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia
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Lim ZX, Cheong KY. Effects of drying temperature and ethanol concentration on bipolar switching characteristics of natural Aloe vera-based memory devices. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2015; 17:26833-53. [DOI: 10.1039/c5cp04622j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Natural Aloe vera provides a biodegradable, biocompatible, and renewable avenue for the sustainable development of electronics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhe Xi Lim
- Electronic Materials Research Group
- School of Materials & Mineral Resources Engineering
- Universiti Sains Malaysia
- 14300 Nibong Tebal
- Malaysia
| | - Kuan Yew Cheong
- Electronic Materials Research Group
- School of Materials & Mineral Resources Engineering
- Universiti Sains Malaysia
- 14300 Nibong Tebal
- Malaysia
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Roux D, Catrain A, Lallechere S, Joly JC. Sunflower exposed to high-intensity microwave-frequency electromagnetic field: electrophysiological response requires a mechanical injury to initiate. PLANT SIGNALING & BEHAVIOR 2015; 10:e972787. [PMID: 25482761 PMCID: PMC4622848 DOI: 10.4161/15592316.2014.972787] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2014] [Revised: 07/17/2014] [Accepted: 07/17/2014] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
We have monitored the electrical potential variations (EPV) of sunflower plants illuminated by a high-intensity microwave-frequency (2.5 GHz, 1.5 kV/m) electromagnetic field (EMF). We have designed an appropriate set-up that allows parallel temperature and EPV measurements while part of the plant is being exposed to the field. The results show that the considered EMF does not induce plant EPV directly. This electrophysiological response appears only when the EMF leads to a mechanical injury of the tissues via a thermal effect (dielectric heating). Once the plant inner temperature reached a threshold, we systematically observed burn-like lesions associated with the bending of the stem or leaf-stalks. Theses mechanical constraints were rapidly followed by EPVs, moving through the stem.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Roux
- Université d'Avignon et des Pays de Vaucluse; Avignon, France
| | - Alexandre Catrain
- Commissariat Energie Atomique et Energies Alternatives (CEA), Direction des applications militaires (DAM), Gramat, France
| | - Sébastien Lallechere
- Clermont Université, Université Blaise Pascal; Institut Pascal; Clermont-Ferrand, France
- Centre national de la recherche scientifique (CNRS), Unité mixte de recherche (UMR) 6602, Institut Pascal; Aubière, France
| | - Jean-Christophe Joly
- Commissariat Energie Atomique et Energies Alternatives (CEA), Direction des applications militaires (DAM), Gramat, France
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Ríos-Rojas L, Morales-Moraga D, Alcalde JA, Gurovich LA. Use of plant woody species electrical potential for irrigation scheduling. PLANT SIGNALING & BEHAVIOR 2015; 10:e976487. [PMID: 25826257 PMCID: PMC4623352 DOI: 10.4161/15592324.2014.976487] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2014] [Revised: 08/25/2014] [Accepted: 08/26/2014] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
The electrical response of plants to environmental stimuli can be measured and quantitatively related to the intensity of several stimulating sources, like temperature, solar radiation, soil water content, evapotranspiration rates, sap flow and dendrometric cycles. These relations can be used to assess the influence of different environmental situations on soil water availability to plants, defined as a steady state condition between leaf transpirative flow and soil water flow to plant roots. A restricted soil water flow due to soil dryness can trigger water stress in plants, if the atmospheric evaporative demand is high, causing partial stomata closure as a physiological response to avoid plant dehydration; water stressed and unstressed plants manifest a differential electrical response. Real time plant electrical response measurements can anticipate actions that prevent the plant reaching actual stress conditions, optimizing stomata gas exchange and photosynthetic rates. An electrophysiological sensor developed in this work, allows remote real-time recording information on plant electrical potential (EP) in the field, which is highly related to EP measurements obtained with a laboratory Keithley voltmeter sensor used in an highly controlled experimental setup. Our electrophysiological sensor is a wireless, autonomous devise, which transmits EP information via Internet to a data server. Using both types of sensors (EP electrodes with a Keithley voltmeter and the electrophysiological sensor), we measured in real time the electrical responses of Persea americana and Prunus domestica plants, to induced water deficits. The differential response for 2 scenarios: irrigation and water restriction is identified by a progressive change in slope on the daily maximal and minimal electric signal values in stressed plants, and a zero-slope for similar signals for well-watered plants. Results show a correspondence between measured signals obtained by our electrophysiological sensor and the EP electrodes connected to the Keithley voltmeter in each irrigation stage. Also, both sensors show a daily cyclical signal (circadian cycle).
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - José A Alcalde
- Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile; Santiago, Chile
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Ríos-Rojas L, Tapia F, Gurovich LA. Electrophysiological assessment of water stress in fruit-bearing woody plants. JOURNAL OF PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2014; 171:799-806. [PMID: 24877671 DOI: 10.1016/j.jplph.2014.02.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2013] [Revised: 02/16/2014] [Accepted: 02/20/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Development and evaluation of a real-time plant water stress sensor, based on the electrophysiological behavior of fruit-bearing woody plants is presented. Continuous electric potentials are measured in tree trunks for different irrigation schedules, inducing variable water stress conditions; results are discussed in relation to soil water content and micro-atmospheric evaporative demand, determined continuously by conventional sensors, correlating this information with tree electric potential measurements. Systematic and differentiable patterns of electric potentials for water-stressed and no-stressed trees in 2 fruit species are presented. Early detection and recovery dynamics of water stress conditions can also be monitored with these electrophysiology sensors, which enable continuous and non-destructive measurements for efficient irrigation scheduling throughout the year. The experiment is developed under controlled conditions, in Faraday cages located at a greenhouse area, both in Persea americana and Prunus domestica plants. Soil moisture evolution is controlled using capacitance sensors and solar radiation, temperature, relative humidity, wind intensity and direction are continuously registered with accurate weather sensors, in a micro-agrometeorological automatic station located at the experimental site. The electrophysiological sensor has two stainless steel electrodes (measuring/reference), inserted on the stem; a high precision Keithley 2701 digital multimeter is used to measure plant electrical signals; an algorithm written in MatLab(®), allows correlating the signal to environmental variables. An electric cyclic behavior is observed (circadian cycle) in the experimental plants. For non-irrigated plants, the electrical signal shows a time positive slope and then, a negative slope after restarting irrigation throughout a rather extended recovery process, before reaching a stable electrical signal with zero slope. Well-watered plants presented a continuous signal with daily maximum and a minimum EP of similar magnitude in time, with zero slope. This plant electrical behavior is proposed for the development of a sensor measuring real-time plant water status.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liliana Ríos-Rojas
- Facultad de Agronomía e Ingeniería Forestal, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Chile
| | | | - Luis A Gurovich
- Facultad de Agronomía e Ingeniería Forestal, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Chile.
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Anisotropy and nonlinear properties of electrochemical circuits in leaves of Aloe vera L. Bioelectrochemistry 2011; 81:4-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bioelechem.2010.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2010] [Revised: 11/11/2010] [Accepted: 11/19/2010] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Volkov AG, Baker K, Foster JC, Clemmons J, Jovanov E, Markin VS. Circadian variations in biologically closed electrochemical circuits in Aloe vera and Mimosa pudica. Bioelectrochemistry 2011; 81:39-45. [PMID: 21334987 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioelechem.2011.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2010] [Revised: 01/16/2011] [Accepted: 01/23/2011] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
The circadian clock regulates a wide range of electrophysiological and developmental processes in plants. This paper presents, for the first time, the direct influence of a circadian clock on biologically closed electrochemical circuits in vivo. Here we show circadian variation of the plant responses to electrical stimulation. The biologically closed electrochemical circuits in the leaves of Aloe vera and Mimosa pudica, which regulate their physiology, were analyzed using the charge stimulation method. The electrostimulation was provided with different timing and different voltages. Resistance between Ag/AgCl electrodes in the leaf of Aloe vera was higher during the day than at night. Discharge of the capacitor in Aloe vera at night was faster than during the day. Discharge of the capacitor in a pulvinus of Mimosa pudica was faster during the day. The biologically closed electrical circuits with voltage gated ion channels in Mimosa pudica are also activated the next day, even in the darkness. These results show that the circadian clock can be maintained endogenously and has electrochemical oscillators, which can activate ion channels in biologically closed electrochemical circuits. We present the equivalent electrical circuits in both plants and their circadian variation to explain the experimental data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander G Volkov
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Oakwood University, 7000 Adventist Blvd., Huntsville, AL 35896, USA.
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