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Kos Š, Jesenko T, Blagus T. In Vivo Wound Healing Model for Characterization of Gene Electrotransfer Effects in Mouse Skin. Methods Mol Biol 2024; 2773:87-96. [PMID: 38236539 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-3714-2_9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2024]
Abstract
Wound healing is a complex biological response to injury characterized by a sequence of interdependent and overlapping physiological actions. To study wound healing and cutaneous regeneration processes, the complexity of wound healing requires the use of animal models. In this chapter, we describe the protocol to generate skin wounds in a mouse model. In the mouse splinted excisional wound model, two full-thickness wounds are firstly created on the mouse dorsum, which is followed by application of silicone splint around wounded area. A splinting ring tightly adheres to the skin around full-thickness wound, preventing wound contraction and replicating human processes of re-epithelialization and new tissue formation. The wound is easily accessible for treatment as well as for daily monitoring and quantifying the wound closure.This technique represents valuable approach for the study of wound healing mechanisms and for evaluation of new therapeutic modalities. In this protocol, we describe how to utilize the model to study the effect of gene electrotransfer of plasmid DNA coding for antiangiogenic molecules. Additionally, we also present how to precisely regulate electrical parameters and modify electrode composition to reach optimal therapeutic effectiveness of gene electrotransfer into skin around wounded area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Špela Kos
- Department of Experimental Oncology, Institute of Oncology Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Tanja Jesenko
- Department of Experimental Oncology, Institute of Oncology Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Tanja Blagus
- Department of Experimental Oncology, Institute of Oncology Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia.
- Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia.
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Lampreht Tratar U, Milevoj N, Cemazar M, Znidar K, Ursic Valentinuzzi K, Brozic A, Tomsic K, Sersa G, Tozon N. Treatment of spontaneous canine mast cell tumors by electrochemotherapy combined with IL-12 gene electrotransfer: Comparison of intratumoral and peritumoral application of IL-12. Int Immunopharmacol 2023; 120:110274. [PMID: 37216797 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2023.110274] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2023] [Revised: 04/24/2023] [Accepted: 04/30/2023] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
The combined treatment of electrochemotherapy (ECT) and interleukin-12 (IL-12) gene electrotransfer (GET) has already been used in clinical studies in dogs to treat various histological types of spontaneous tumors. The results of these studies show that the treatment is safe and effective. However, in these clinical studies, the routes of administration of IL-12 GET were either intratumoral (i.t.) or peritumoral (peri.t.). Therefore, the objective of this clinical trial was to compare the two IL-12 GET routes of administration in combination with ECT and their contribution to the enhanced ECT response. Seventy-seven dogs with spontaneous mast cell tumors (MCTs) were divided into three groups: one treated with a combination of ECT + GET peri. t. (29 dogs), the second with the combination of ECT + GET i.t. (30 dogs), and the third with ECT alone (18 dogs). In addition, immunohistochemical studies of tumor samples before treatment and flow cytometry of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) before and after treatment were performed to determine any immunological aspects of the treatment. The results showed that local tumor control was significantly better in the ECT + GET i.t. group (p < 0.050) than in the ECT + GET peri.t. or ECT groups. In addition, disease-free interval (DFI) and progression-free survival (PFS) were significantly longer in the ECT + GET i.t. group than in the other two groups (p < 0.050). The data on local tumor response, DFI, and PFS were consistent with immunological tests, as we detected an increased percentage of antitumor immune cells in the blood after treatment in the ECT + GET i.t. group, which also indicated the induction of a systemic immune response. In addition, we did not observe any unwanted severe or long-lasting side effects. Finally, due to the more pronounced local response after ECT + GET i.t., we suggest that treatment response assessment should be performed at least two months after treatment, which meets the iRECIST criteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ursa Lampreht Tratar
- Department of Experimental Oncology, Institute of Oncology Ljubljana, Zaloska 2, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Gerbiceva 60, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Nina Milevoj
- Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Gerbiceva 60, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Maja Cemazar
- Department of Experimental Oncology, Institute of Oncology Ljubljana, Zaloska 2, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Primorska, Polje 42, 6310 Izola, Slovenia.
| | - Katarina Znidar
- Department of Experimental Oncology, Institute of Oncology Ljubljana, Zaloska 2, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Katja Ursic Valentinuzzi
- Department of Experimental Oncology, Institute of Oncology Ljubljana, Zaloska 2, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Jamnikarjeva ulica 101, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Andreja Brozic
- Department of Experimental Oncology, Institute of Oncology Ljubljana, Zaloska 2, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Katerina Tomsic
- Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Gerbiceva 60, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Gregor Sersa
- Department of Experimental Oncology, Institute of Oncology Ljubljana, Zaloska 2, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Ljubljana, Zdravstvena pot 5, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Natasa Tozon
- Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Gerbiceva 60, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia.
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Radzevičiūtė-Valčiukė E, Gečaitė J, Želvys A, Zinkevičienė A, Žalnėravičius R, Malyško-Ptašinskė V, Nemeikaitė-Čenienė A, Kašėta V, German N, Novickij J, Ramanavičienė A, Kulbacka J, Novickij V. Improving NonViral Gene Delivery Using MHz Bursts of Nanosecond Pulses and Gold Nanoparticles for Electric Field Amplification. Pharmaceutics 2023; 15:pharmaceutics15041178. [PMID: 37111663 PMCID: PMC10146442 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics15041178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2023] [Revised: 03/27/2023] [Accepted: 04/05/2023] [Indexed: 04/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Gene delivery by the pulsed electric field is a promising alternative technology for nonviral transfection; however, the application of short pulses (i.e., nanosecond) is extremely limited. In this work, we aimed to show the capability to improve gene delivery using MHz frequency bursts of nanosecond pulses and characterize the potential use of gold nanoparticles (AuNPs: 9, 13, 14, and 22 nm) in this context. We have used bursts of MHz pulses 3/5/7 kV/cm × 300 ns × 100 and compared the efficacy of the parametric protocols to conventional microsecond protocols (100 µs × 8, 1 Hz) separately and in combination with nanoparticles. Furthermore, the effects of pulses and AuNPs on the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) were analyzed. It was shown that gene delivery using microsecond protocols could be significantly improved with AuNPs; however, the efficacy is strongly dependent on the surface charge of AuNPs and their size. The capability of local field amplification using AuNPs was also confirmed by finite element method simulation. Finally, it was shown that AuNPs are not effective with nanosecond protocols. However, MHz protocols are still competitive in the context of gene delivery, resulting in low ROS generation, preserved viability, and easier procedure to trigger comparable efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eivina Radzevičiūtė-Valčiukė
- Department of Immunology, State Research Institute Centre for Innovative Medicine, 08406 Vilnius, Lithuania
- Faculty of Electronics, Vilnius Gediminas Technical University, 10223 Vilnius, Lithuania
| | - Jovita Gečaitė
- Department of Immunology, State Research Institute Centre for Innovative Medicine, 08406 Vilnius, Lithuania
| | - Augustinas Želvys
- Department of Immunology, State Research Institute Centre for Innovative Medicine, 08406 Vilnius, Lithuania
| | - Auksė Zinkevičienė
- Department of Immunology, State Research Institute Centre for Innovative Medicine, 08406 Vilnius, Lithuania
| | - Rokas Žalnėravičius
- State Research Institute Center for Physical Science and Technology, 02300 Vilnius, Lithuania
| | | | - Aušra Nemeikaitė-Čenienė
- Department of Immunology, State Research Institute Centre for Innovative Medicine, 08406 Vilnius, Lithuania
| | - Vytautas Kašėta
- Department of Biomodels, State Research Institute Centre for Innovative Medicine, 08406 Vilnius, Lithuania
| | - Natalija German
- Department of Immunology, State Research Institute Centre for Innovative Medicine, 08406 Vilnius, Lithuania
| | - Jurij Novickij
- Faculty of Electronics, Vilnius Gediminas Technical University, 10223 Vilnius, Lithuania
| | - Almira Ramanavičienė
- Department of Immunology, State Research Institute Centre for Innovative Medicine, 08406 Vilnius, Lithuania
| | - Julita Kulbacka
- Department of Immunology, State Research Institute Centre for Innovative Medicine, 08406 Vilnius, Lithuania
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Wroclaw Medical University, 50-367 Wroclaw, Poland
| | - Vitalij Novickij
- Department of Immunology, State Research Institute Centre for Innovative Medicine, 08406 Vilnius, Lithuania
- Faculty of Electronics, Vilnius Gediminas Technical University, 10223 Vilnius, Lithuania
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Xiao S, Zhou C, Appia E, Dhali S. Atmospheric Air Plasma Streamers Deliver Nanosecond Pulses for Focused Electroporation. Bioelectricity 2022. [DOI: 10.1089/bioe.2022.0025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Shu Xiao
- Frank Reidy Research Center for Bioelectrics, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Virginia, USA
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Virginia, USA
| | - Carol Zhou
- Frank Reidy Research Center for Bioelectrics, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Virginia, USA
| | - Eric Appia
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Virginia, USA
| | - Shirshak Dhali
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Virginia, USA
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Ren N, Hang C, Liu X, Jiang X. Printable Metal-Polymer Conductors for Local Drug Delivery. NANO LETTERS 2022; 22:7554-7562. [PMID: 36122317 DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.2c02548] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Safe and effective local drug delivery is challenging due to complex physiological barriers that limit the entry of drugs. Here, we report the metal-polymer conductors (MPCs) for local drug delivery via iontophoresis or electroporation. The MPCs are stretchable, conductive, and biocompatible. The flexible MPCs of different geometries are used both on a dry, flat surface (skin) and a moist, curved surface (cornea) with conformability. Conformal integration with the tissues enables good mechanical/electrical properties and realizes application of electrical voltage to the target areas for local drug delivery. By iontophoresis and electroporation, the MPCs achieve efficient delivery of doxorubicin and siRNA, leading to tumor regression and inhibition of corneal neovascularization, respectively. Our work presents an efficient strategy to harness the power of the MPCs to broaden the scope of local drug delivery to dry and wet organs with different surface topography.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ning Ren
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Smart Healthcare Engineering, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, No. 1088, Xueyuan Road, Xili, Nanshan District, Shenzhen, Guangdong 518055, P.R. China
| | - Chen Hang
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Smart Healthcare Engineering, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, No. 1088, Xueyuan Road, Xili, Nanshan District, Shenzhen, Guangdong 518055, P.R. China
| | - Xiaoyan Liu
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Smart Healthcare Engineering, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, No. 1088, Xueyuan Road, Xili, Nanshan District, Shenzhen, Guangdong 518055, P.R. China
| | - Xingyu Jiang
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Smart Healthcare Engineering, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, No. 1088, Xueyuan Road, Xili, Nanshan District, Shenzhen, Guangdong 518055, P.R. China
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Remic T, Sersa G, Levpuscek K, Lampreht Tratar U, Ursic Valentinuzzi K, Cör A, Kamensek U. Tumor cell-based vaccine contributes to local tumor irradiation by eliciting a tumor model-dependent systemic immune response. Front Immunol 2022; 13:974912. [PMID: 36131926 PMCID: PMC9483914 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.974912] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2022] [Accepted: 08/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Multimodal treatment approaches, such as radio-immunotherapy, necessitate regimen optimization and the investigation of the interactions of different modalities. The aim of this study was two-fold. Firstly, to select the most effective combination of irradiation and the previously developed tumor cell-based vaccine and then to provide insight into the immune response to the selected combinatorial treatment. The study was performed in immunologically different murine tumor models: B16F10 melanoma and CT26 colorectal carcinoma. The most effective combinatorial treatment was selected by comparing three different IR regimens and three different vaccination regimens. We determined the local immune response by investigating immune cell infiltration at the vaccination site and in tumors. Lastly, we determined the systemic immune response by investigating the amount of tumor-specific effector lymphocytes in draining lymph nodes. The selected most effective combinatorial treatment was 5× 5 Gy in combination with concomitant single-dose vaccination (B16F10) or with concomitant multi-dose vaccination (CT26). The combinatorial treatment successfully elicited a local immune response at the vaccination site and in tumors in both tumor models. It also resulted in the highest amount of tumor-specific effector lymphocytes in draining lymph nodes in the B16F10, but not in the CT26 tumor-bearing mice. However, the amount of tumor-specific effector lymphocytes was intrinsically higher in the CT26 than in the B16F10 tumor model. Upon the selection of the most effective combinatorial treatment, we demonstrated that the vaccine elicits an immune response and contributes to the antitumor efficacy of tumor irradiation. However, this interaction is multi-faceted and appears to be dependent on the tumor immunogenicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tinkara Remic
- Department of Experimental Oncology, Institute of Oncology Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Gregor Sersa
- Department of Experimental Oncology, Institute of Oncology Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
- Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Kristina Levpuscek
- Department of Experimental Oncology, Institute of Oncology Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Ursa Lampreht Tratar
- Department of Experimental Oncology, Institute of Oncology Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
- Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Katja Ursic Valentinuzzi
- Department of Experimental Oncology, Institute of Oncology Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
- Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Andrej Cör
- Department of Research, Valdoltra Orthopaedic Hospital, Ankaran, Slovenia
- Faculty of Education, University of Primorska, Koper, Slovenia
| | - Urska Kamensek
- Department of Experimental Oncology, Institute of Oncology Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
- Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
- *Correspondence: Urska Kamensek,
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Design, Development, and Testing of a Device for Gene Electrotransfer to Skin Cells In Vivo. Pharmaceutics 2022; 14:pharmaceutics14091826. [PMID: 36145573 PMCID: PMC9505516 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics14091826] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2022] [Revised: 08/18/2022] [Accepted: 08/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Gene electrotransfer (GET) is considered one of the most efficient, safe, reproducible, and cost-effective methods of gene therapy, in which a gene is delivered to the cells in the form of a plasmid DNA vector by a method known as electroporation. To achieve successful electroporation, cells must be exposed to sufficiently high electric fields generated by short-duration, high-voltage electrical pulses that result in a temporary increase in plasma membrane permeability. The electrical pulses are generated by pulse generators (electroporators) and delivered to the cells via electrodes (applicators). However, there is a lack of standardized pulse delivery protocols as well as certified clinical pulse generators and applicators for gene delivery. In this paper, the development of a new pulse generator, applicator, and pulse delivery protocol for GET to skin cells is presented. A numerical model of electroporated skin developed and tested for two electrode configurations and two different pulse delivery protocols is also presented. An alternative pulse delivery protocol was proposed. The developed pulse generator, applicator, and the proposed pulse delivery protocol were then used in vivo for GET to skin cells in mice. The results showed high efficiency of the proposed pulse delivery protocol for the purpose of GET in mouse skin cells. Specifically, electroporation with the developed pulse generator, applicator, and proposed pulse delivery protocol resulted in higher gene expression in skin cells compared to the currently used pulse generator, applicator, and pulse delivery protocol.
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Non-contact electrical stimulation as an effective means to promote wound healing. Bioelectrochemistry 2022; 146:108108. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bioelechem.2022.108108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2021] [Revised: 03/20/2022] [Accepted: 03/21/2022] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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Singh P, Muhammad I, Nelson NE, Tran KTM, Vinikoor T, Chorsi MT, D’Orio E, Nguyen TD. Transdermal delivery for gene therapy. Drug Deliv Transl Res 2022; 12:2613-2633. [PMID: 35538189 PMCID: PMC9089295 DOI: 10.1007/s13346-022-01138-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/13/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Gene therapy is a critical constituent of treatment approaches for genetic diseases and has gained tremendous attention. Treating and preventing diseases at the genetic level using genetic materials such as DNA or RNAs could be a new avenue in medicine. However, delivering genes is always a challenge as these molecules are sensitive to various enzymes inside the body, often produce systemic toxicity, and suffer from off-targeting problems. In this regard, transdermal delivery has emerged as an appealing approach to enable a high efficiency and low toxicity of genetic medicines. This review systematically summarizes outstanding transdermal gene delivery methods for applications in skin cancer treatment, vaccination, wound healing, and other therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Parbeen Singh
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Connecticut, Storrs, USA
| | - I’jaaz Muhammad
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Connecticut, Storrs, USA
| | - Nicole E. Nelson
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Connecticut, Storrs, USA
| | - Khanh T. M. Tran
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Connecticut, Storrs, USA
| | - Tra Vinikoor
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Connecticut, Storrs, USA
| | - Meysam T. Chorsi
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Connecticut, Storrs, USA ,Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Connecticut, Storrs, USA
| | - Ethan D’Orio
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Connecticut, Storrs, USA ,Department of Biomedical Engineering and Department of Advanced Manufacturing for Energy Systems, Storrs, USA
| | - Thanh D. Nguyen
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Connecticut, Storrs, USA ,Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Connecticut, Storrs, USA
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Zand E, Froehling A, Schoenher C, Zunabovic-Pichler M, Schlueter O, Jaeger H. Potential of Flow Cytometric Approaches for Rapid Microbial Detection and Characterization in the Food Industry-A Review. Foods 2021; 10:3112. [PMID: 34945663 PMCID: PMC8701031 DOI: 10.3390/foods10123112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2021] [Revised: 11/14/2021] [Accepted: 11/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
As microbial contamination is persistent within the food and bioindustries and foodborne infections are still a significant cause of death, the detection, monitoring, and characterization of pathogens and spoilage microorganisms are of great importance. However, the current methods do not meet all relevant criteria. They either show (i) inadequate sensitivity, rapidity, and effectiveness; (ii) a high workload and time requirement; or (iii) difficulties in differentiating between viable and non-viable cells. Flow cytometry (FCM) represents an approach to overcome such limitations. Thus, this comprehensive literature review focuses on the potential of FCM and fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) for food and bioindustry applications. First, the principles of FCM and FISH and basic staining methods are discussed, and critical areas for microbial contamination, including abiotic and biotic surfaces, water, and air, are characterized. State-of-the-art non-specific FCM and specific FISH approaches are described, and their limitations are highlighted. One such limitation is the use of toxic and mutagenic fluorochromes and probes. Alternative staining and hybridization approaches are presented, along with other strategies to overcome the current challenges. Further research needs are outlined in order to make FCM and FISH even more suitable monitoring and detection tools for food quality and safety and environmental and clinical approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena Zand
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Institute of Food Technology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna (BOKU), 1190 Vienna, Austria;
| | - Antje Froehling
- Leibniz Institute for Agricultural Engineering and Bioeconomy, Quality and Safety of Food and Feed, 14469 Potsdam, Germany; (A.F.); (O.S.)
| | - Christoph Schoenher
- Institute of Sanitary Engineering and Water Pollution Control, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, 1190 Vienna, Austria; (C.S.); (M.Z.-P.)
| | - Marija Zunabovic-Pichler
- Institute of Sanitary Engineering and Water Pollution Control, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, 1190 Vienna, Austria; (C.S.); (M.Z.-P.)
| | - Oliver Schlueter
- Leibniz Institute for Agricultural Engineering and Bioeconomy, Quality and Safety of Food and Feed, 14469 Potsdam, Germany; (A.F.); (O.S.)
| | - Henry Jaeger
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Institute of Food Technology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna (BOKU), 1190 Vienna, Austria;
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McCarthy A, Shah R, John JV, Brown D, Xie J. Understanding and utilizing textile-based electrostatic flocking for biomedical applications. APPLIED PHYSICS REVIEWS 2021; 8:041326. [PMID: 35003482 PMCID: PMC8715800 DOI: 10.1063/5.0070658] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2021] [Accepted: 11/23/2021] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
Electrostatic flocking immobilizes electrical charges to the surface of microfibers from a high voltage-connected electrode and utilizes Coulombic forces to propel microfibers toward an adhesive-coated substrate, leaving a forest of aligned fibers. This traditional textile engineering technique has been used to modify surfaces or to create standalone anisotropic structures. Notably, a small body of evidence validating the use of electrostatic flocking for biomedical applications has emerged over the past several years. Noting the growing interest in utilizing electrostatic flocking in biomedical research, we aim to provide an overview of electrostatic flocking, including the principle, setups, and general and biomedical considerations, and propose a variety of biomedical applications. We begin with an introduction to the development and general applications of electrostatic flocking. Additionally, we introduce and review some of the flocking physics and mathematical considerations. We then discuss how to select, synthesize, and tune the main components (flocking fibers, adhesives, substrates) of electrostatic flocking for biomedical applications. After reviewing the considerations necessary for applying flocking toward biomedical research, we introduce a variety of proposed use cases including bone and skin tissue engineering, wound healing and wound management, and specimen swabbing. Finally, we presented the industrial comments followed by conclusions and future directions. We hope this review article inspires a broad audience of biomedical, material, and physics researchers to apply electrostatic flocking technology to solve a variety of biomedical and materials science problems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alec McCarthy
- Department of Surgery-Transplant and Mary & Dick Holland Regenerative Medicine Program, College of Medicine, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska 668198, USA
| | - Rajesh Shah
- Spectro Coating Corporation, Leominster, Massachusetts 01453, USA
| | - Johnson V. John
- Department of Surgery-Transplant and Mary & Dick Holland Regenerative Medicine Program, College of Medicine, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska 668198, USA
| | - Demi Brown
- Department of Surgery-Transplant and Mary & Dick Holland Regenerative Medicine Program, College of Medicine, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska 668198, USA
| | - Jingwei Xie
- Author to whom correspondence should be addressed:
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Edelblute C, Mangiamele C, Heller R. Moderate Heat-Assisted Gene Electrotransfer as a Potential Delivery Approach for Protein Replacement Therapy through the Skin. Pharmaceutics 2021; 13:pharmaceutics13111908. [PMID: 34834323 PMCID: PMC8624362 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics13111908] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2021] [Revised: 10/20/2021] [Accepted: 11/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Gene-based approaches for protein replacement therapies have the potential to reduce the number of administrations. Our previous work demonstrated that expression could be enhanced and/or the applied voltage reduced by preheating the tissue prior to pulse administration. In the current study, we utilized our 16-pin multi-electrode array (MEA) and incorporated nine optical fibers, connected to an infrared laser, between each set of four electrodes to heat the tissue to 43 °C. For proof of principle, a guinea pig model was used to test delivery of reporter genes. We observed that when the skin was preheated, it was possible to achieve the same expression levels as gene electrotransfer without preheating, but with a 23% reduction of applied voltage or a 50% reduction of pulse number. With respect to expression distribution, preheating allowed for delivery to the deep dermis and muscle. This suggested that this cutaneous delivery approach has the potential to achieve expression in the systemic circulation, thus this protocol was repeated using a plasmid encoding Human Factor IX. Elevated Factor IX serum protein levels were detected by ELISA up to 100 days post gene delivery. Further work will involve optimizing protein levels and scalability in an effort to reduce application frequency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chelsea Edelblute
- Frank Reidy Research Center for Bioelectrics, Old Dominion University, 4211 Monarch Way, Suite 300, Norfolk, VA 23508, USA; (C.E.); (C.M.)
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Graduate School, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA 23508, USA
| | - Cathryn Mangiamele
- Frank Reidy Research Center for Bioelectrics, Old Dominion University, 4211 Monarch Way, Suite 300, Norfolk, VA 23508, USA; (C.E.); (C.M.)
| | - Richard Heller
- Department of Medical Engineering, Colleges of Medicine and Engineering, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33612, USA
- Correspondence:
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Mahlapuu M, Sidorowicz A, Mikosinski J, Krzyżanowski M, Orleanski J, Twardowska-Saucha K, Nykaza A, Dyaczynski M, Belz-Lagoda B, Dziwiszek G, Kujawiak M, Karczewski M, Sjöberg F, Grzela T, Wegrzynowski A, Thunarf F, Björk J, Ekblom J, Jawien A, Apelqvist J. Evaluation of LL-37 in healing of hard-to-heal venous leg ulcers: A multicentric prospective randomized placebo-controlled clinical trial. Wound Repair Regen 2021; 29:938-950. [PMID: 34687253 PMCID: PMC9298190 DOI: 10.1111/wrr.12977] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2021] [Revised: 08/27/2021] [Accepted: 10/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Many patients with venous leg ulcers do not reach complete healing with compression treatment alone, which is current standard care. This clinical trial HEAL LL‐37 was a phase IIb double‐blind, randomized, placebo‐controlled study, with the aim to evaluate the efficacy and safety of a new drug LL‐37 for topical administration, in combination with compression therapy, in 148 patients suffering from hard‐to‐heal venous leg ulcers. The study had three arms, consisting of two groups treated with LL‐37 at concentrations of 0.5 or 1.6 mg/mL, and a placebo cohort. Patients had a mean age of 67.6 years, a median ulcer duration of 20.3 months, and a mean wound size at the time of randomization of 11.6 cm2. Efficacy analysis performed on the full study population did not identify any significant improvement in healing in patients treated with LL‐37 as compared with the placebo. In contrast, a post hoc analysis revealed statistically significant improvement with LL‐37 treatment in several interrelated healing parameters in the subgroup of patients with large target wounds (a wound area of at least 10 cm2 at randomization), which is a known negative prognostic factor for healing. The study drug was well tolerated and safe in both dose strengths. In summary, this clinical trial did not detect any significant differences in healing of venous lower leg ulcers in the entire study cohort comparing patients treated with LL‐37 versus placebo. A subgroup analysis provided an interesting observation that LL‐37 could offer a treatment benefit in patients with large ulcers, exigently warranting a further study adequately powered to statistically assess the treatment outcome in this patient group.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Folke Sjöberg
- Burn Center, Linköping University Hospital, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Tomasz Grzela
- Clinic of Phlebology and the Medical University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
| | | | | | | | | | - Arkadiusz Jawien
- Department of Vascular Surgery and Angiology, Ludwik Rydygier Collegium Medicum in Bydgoszcz, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Torun, Torun, Poland
| | - Jan Apelqvist
- Department of Endocrinology, University Hospital of Malmö, Malmö, Sweden
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14
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Shanmugaraj B, Bulaon CJI, Malla A, Phoolcharoen W. Biotechnological Insights on the Expression and Production of Antimicrobial Peptides in Plants. Molecules 2021; 26:4032. [PMID: 34279372 PMCID: PMC8272150 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26134032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2021] [Revised: 06/27/2021] [Accepted: 06/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
The emergence of drug-resistant pathogens poses a serious critical threat to global public health and requires immediate action. Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are a class of short peptides ubiquitously found in all living forms, including plants, insects, mammals, microorganisms and play a significant role in host innate immune system. These peptides are considered as promising candidates to treat microbial infections due to its distinct advantages over conventional antibiotics. Given their potent broad spectrum of antimicrobial action, several AMPs are currently being evaluated in preclinical/clinical trials. However, large quantities of highly purified AMPs are vital for basic research and clinical settings which is still a major bottleneck hindering its application. This can be overcome by genetic engineering approaches to produce sufficient amount of diverse peptides in heterologous host systems. Recently plants are considered as potential alternatives to conventional protein production systems such as microbial and mammalian platforms due to their unique advantages such as rapidity, scalability and safety. In addition, AMPs can also be utilized for development of novel approaches for plant protection thereby increasing the crop yield. Hence, in order to provide a spotlight for the expression of AMP in plants for both clinical or agricultural use, the present review presents the importance of AMPs and efforts aimed at producing recombinant AMPs in plants for molecular farming and plant protection so far.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Christine Joy I Bulaon
- Research Unit for Plant-Produced Pharmaceuticals, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
- Department of Pharmacognosy and Pharmaceutical Botany, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
| | | | - Waranyoo Phoolcharoen
- Research Unit for Plant-Produced Pharmaceuticals, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
- Department of Pharmacognosy and Pharmaceutical Botany, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
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15
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Zand E, Schottroff F, Steinacker E, Mae-Gano J, Schoenher C, Wimberger T, Wassermann KJ, Jaeger H. Advantages and limitations of various treatment chamber designs for reversible and irreversible electroporation in life sciences. Bioelectrochemistry 2021; 141:107841. [PMID: 34098460 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioelechem.2021.107841] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2021] [Revised: 05/06/2021] [Accepted: 05/07/2021] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
The fundamental mechanisms of pulsed electric fields on biological cells are not yet fully elucidated, though it is apparent that membrane electroporation plays a crucial role. Little is known about treatment-chamber-specific effects, and systematic studies are scarce. Thus, the present study evaluates the (dis-)advantages of various treatment chamber designs for liquid applications at differing scales. Three chambers, namely parallel plate microfluidic (V̇: 0.1 ml/min; titanium electrodes), co-linear meso (V̇: 5.0 ml/min; stainless steel electrodes), and co-linear macro (V̇: 83.3 ml/min; stainless steel electrodes) chambers, were studied. Electroporation effects on Escherichia coli in media with 0.1-10.0 mS/cm were evaluated by plate counts and flow cytometry at 8, 16, and 20 kV/cm. For the microfluidic chamber, predominantly irreversible electroporation (2.5 logs10 reductions) was seen at 0.1 mS/cm, while high irreversible electroporation (4.2 logs10 reductions) at 10.0 mS/cm was observed for the macro chamber. The meso chamber indicated a similar trend towards increased conductivity, even though only low inactivation levels were present. Variation in conductivity and electrode configuration or area likely induces effects resulting in distinct electroporation levels, as observed for the micro and macro chamber. Suitable application scenarios, depending on targeted electroporation effects, were suggested.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena Zand
- Institute of Food Technology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences (BOKU), Vienna, Austria.
| | - Felix Schottroff
- Institute of Food Technology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences (BOKU), Vienna, Austria; BOKU Core Facility Food & Bio Processing, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences (BOKU), Vienna, Austria.
| | - Elisabeth Steinacker
- Institute of Food Technology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences (BOKU), Vienna, Austria
| | - Jennifer Mae-Gano
- Institute of Food Technology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences (BOKU), Vienna, Austria
| | - Christoph Schoenher
- Institute of Sanitary Engineering and Water Pollution Control, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences (BOKU), Vienna, Austria
| | - Terje Wimberger
- Health & Environment Department, AIT Austrian Institute of Technology GmbH, Vienna, Austria
| | - Klemens J Wassermann
- Health & Environment Department, AIT Austrian Institute of Technology GmbH, Vienna, Austria
| | - Henry Jaeger
- Institute of Food Technology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences (BOKU), Vienna, Austria
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16
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Bulysheva A, Heller L, Francis M, Varghese F, Boye C, Heller R. Monopolar gene electrotransfer enhances plasmid DNA delivery to skin. Bioelectrochemistry 2021; 140:107814. [PMID: 33962133 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioelechem.2021.107814] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2020] [Revised: 03/29/2021] [Accepted: 03/30/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
A novel monopolar electroporation system and methodologies were developed for in vivo electroporation intended for potential clinical applications such as gene therapy. We hypothesized that an asymmetric anode/cathode electrode applicator geometry could produce favorable electric fields for electroporation, without the typical drawback associated with traditional needle and parallel plate geometries. Three monopolar electrode applicator prototypes were built and tested for gene delivery of reporter genes to the skin in a guinea pig model. Gene expression was evaluated in terms of kinetics over time and expression distribution within the treatment site. Different pulsing parameters, including pulse amplitude, pulse duration, and pulse number were evaluated. Monopolar gene electrotransfer significantly enhanced gene expression compared to controls over the course of 21 days. Gene expression distribution was observed throughout the full thickness of the epidermis, as well as notable expression in the deeper layers of the skin, including the dermis, and the underlying striated muscle without any damage at the treatment site, which is a substantial improvement over previously reported expression confined to the epidermis only. Expression distribution observed is consistent with the electric field distribution model, indicating that our novel electrode geometry results in targeted electroporation and gene transfer. This is important, as it may facilitate translation of many electroporation-based clinical therapies including gene therapies, IRE, and ECT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Bulysheva
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Old Dominion University, Norfolk VA, United States.
| | - Loree Heller
- Department of Medical Engineering, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, United States
| | | | - Frency Varghese
- Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA, United States
| | - Carly Boye
- Center for Molecular Medicine and Genetics, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, United States
| | - Richard Heller
- Department of Medical Engineering, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, United States
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17
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Nemec A, Milevoj N, Lampreht Tratar U, Serša G, Čemažar M, Tozon N. Electroporation-Based Treatments in Small Animal Veterinary Oral and Maxillofacial Oncology. Front Vet Sci 2020; 7:575911. [PMID: 33134356 PMCID: PMC7550461 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2020.575911] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2020] [Accepted: 08/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Electroporation is a method of inducing an increase in permeability of the cell membrane through the application of an electric field and can be used as a delivery method for introducing molecules of interest (e.g., chemotherapeutics or plasmid DNA) into cells. Electroporation-based treatments (i.e., electrochemotherapy, gene electrotransfer, and their combinations) have been shown to be safe and effective in veterinary oncology, but they are currently mostly recommended for the treatment of those solid tumors for which clients have declined surgery and/or radiotherapy. Published data show that electroporation-based treatments are also safe, simple, fast and cost-effective treatment alternatives for selected oral and maxillofacial tumors, especially small squamous cell carcinoma and malignant melanoma tumors not involving the bone in dogs. In these patients, a good local response to treatment is expected to result in increased survival time with good quality of life. Despite emerging evidence of the clinical efficacy of electroporation-based treatments for oral and maxillofacial tumors, further investigation is needed to optimize treatment protocols, improve clinical data reporting and better understand the mechanisms of patients' response to the treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Nemec
- Small Animal Clinic, Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Nina Milevoj
- Small Animal Clinic, Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | | | - Gregor Serša
- Institute of Oncology Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Maja Čemažar
- Institute of Oncology Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Nataša Tozon
- Small Animal Clinic, Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
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18
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Mahlapuu M, Björn C, Ekblom J. Antimicrobial peptides as therapeutic agents: opportunities and challenges. Crit Rev Biotechnol 2020; 40:978-992. [PMID: 32781848 DOI: 10.1080/07388551.2020.1796576] [Citation(s) in RCA: 205] [Impact Index Per Article: 51.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The rapid development of microbial resistance to conventional antibiotics has accelerated efforts to find anti-infectives with a novel mode-of-action, which are less prone to bacterial resistance. Intense nonclinical and clinical research is today ongoing to evaluate antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) as potential next-generation antibiotics. Currently, multiple AMPs are assessed in late-stage clinical trials, not only as novel anti-infective drugs, but also as innovative product candidates for immunomodulation, promotion of wound healing, and prevention of post-operative scars. The efforts to translate AMP-based research findings into pharmaceutical product candidates are expected to accelerate in coming years due to technological advancements in multiple areas, including an improved understanding of the mechanism-of-action of AMPs, smart formulation strategies, and advanced chemical synthesis protocols. At the same time, it is recognized that cytotoxicity, low metabolic stability due to sensitivity to proteolytic degradation, and limited oral bioavailability are some of the key weaknesses of AMPs. Furthermore, the pricing and reimbursement environment for new antimicrobial products remains as a major barrier to the commercialization of AMPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margit Mahlapuu
- Promore Pharma AB, Karolinska Institutet Science Park, Solna, Sweden
| | | | - Jonas Ekblom
- Promore Pharma AB, Karolinska Institutet Science Park, Solna, Sweden
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19
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Novickij V, Balevičiūtė A, Ruzgys P, Šatkauskas S, Novickij J, Zinkevičienė A, Girkontaitė I. Sub-microsecond electrotransfection using new modality of high frequency electroporation. Bioelectrochemistry 2020; 136:107594. [PMID: 32679337 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioelechem.2020.107594] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2020] [Revised: 06/28/2020] [Accepted: 06/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Micro-millisecond range electric field pulses have been used for decades to facilitate DNA transfer into cells and tissues, while the growing number of clinical trials underline the strong potential of DNA electroporation. In this work, we present new sub-microsecond range protocols and methodology enabling successful electrotransfection in the sub-microsecond range. To facilitate DNA transfer, a 3 kV/60 A and high frequency (1 MHz) sub-microsecond range square wave generator was applied in the study. As a model, Chinese hamster ovary (CHO-K1) cells were used. Sub-microsecond range (300-700 ns) high frequency pulsed electric fields of 2-15 kV/cm were applied. The efficiency of electrotransfection was evaluated using two green fluorescent protein encoding plasmids of different size (3.5 kbp and 4.7 kbp). It was shown that transfection efficiency cannot be effectively improved with increase of the number of pulses after a certain threshold, however, independently on the plasmid size, the proposed sub-microsecond range pulsing methodology (2-5 kV/cm; n = 250) efficiency-wise was equivalent to 1.5 kV/cm × 100 μs × 4 electroporation procedure. The results of the study are useful for further development of in vitro and in vivo methods for effective electrotransfer of DNA using shorter pulses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vitalij Novickij
- Faculty of Electronics, Vilnius Gediminas Technical University, Vilnius, Lithuania.
| | - Austėja Balevičiūtė
- State Research Institute Centre for Innovative Medicine, Department of Immunology, Vilnius, Lithuania
| | - Paulius Ruzgys
- Biophysical Research Group, Vytautas Magnus University, Kaunas, Lithuania
| | - Saulius Šatkauskas
- Biophysical Research Group, Vytautas Magnus University, Kaunas, Lithuania
| | - Jurij Novickij
- Faculty of Electronics, Vilnius Gediminas Technical University, Vilnius, Lithuania
| | - Auksė Zinkevičienė
- State Research Institute Centre for Innovative Medicine, Department of Immunology, Vilnius, Lithuania
| | - Irutė Girkontaitė
- State Research Institute Centre for Innovative Medicine, Department of Immunology, Vilnius, Lithuania
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20
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Remic T, Sersa G, Ursic K, Cemazar M, Kamensek U. Development of Tumor Cell-Based Vaccine with IL-12 Gene Electrotransfer as Adjuvant. Vaccines (Basel) 2020; 8:vaccines8010111. [PMID: 32121641 PMCID: PMC7157224 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines8010111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2020] [Revised: 02/25/2020] [Accepted: 02/27/2020] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Tumor cell-based vaccines use tumor cells as a source of tumor-associated antigens. In our study, we aimed to develop and test a tumor vaccine composed of tumor cells killed by irradiation combined with in vivo interleukin-12 gene electrotransfer as an adjuvant. Vaccination was performed in the skin of B16-F10 malignant melanoma or CT26 colorectal carcinoma tumor-bearing mice, distant from the tumor site and combined with concurrent tumor irradiation. Vaccination was also performed before tumor inoculation in both tumor models and tumor outgrowth was followed. The antitumor efficacy of vaccination in combination with tumor irradiation or preventative vaccination varied between the tumor models. A synergistic effect between vaccination and irradiation was observed in the B16-F10, but not in the CT26 tumor model. In contrast, up to 56% of mice were protected from tumor outgrowth in the CT26 tumor model and none were protected in the B16-F10 tumor model. The results suggest a greater contribution of the therapeutic vaccination to tumor irradiation in a less immunogenic B16-F10 tumor model, in contrast to preventative vaccination, which has shown greater efficacy in a more immunogenic CT26 tumor model. Upon further optimization of the vaccination and irradiation regimen, our vaccine could present an alternative tumor cell-based vaccine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tinkara Remic
- Department of Experimental Oncology, Institute of Oncology Ljubljana, Zaloska cesta 2, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; (T.R.); (G.S.); (K.U.); (M.C.)
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Ljubljana, Vrazov Trg 2, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Gregor Sersa
- Department of Experimental Oncology, Institute of Oncology Ljubljana, Zaloska cesta 2, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; (T.R.); (G.S.); (K.U.); (M.C.)
- Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Ljubljana, Zdravstvena pot 5, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Katja Ursic
- Department of Experimental Oncology, Institute of Oncology Ljubljana, Zaloska cesta 2, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; (T.R.); (G.S.); (K.U.); (M.C.)
| | - Maja Cemazar
- Department of Experimental Oncology, Institute of Oncology Ljubljana, Zaloska cesta 2, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; (T.R.); (G.S.); (K.U.); (M.C.)
- Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Primorska, Polje 42, SI-6310 Izola, Slovenia
| | - Urska Kamensek
- Department of Experimental Oncology, Institute of Oncology Ljubljana, Zaloska cesta 2, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; (T.R.); (G.S.); (K.U.); (M.C.)
- Correspondence:
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21
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Electrotransfer of CpG free plasmids enhances gene expression in skin. Bioelectrochemistry 2019; 130:107343. [PMID: 31401517 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioelechem.2019.107343] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2019] [Revised: 07/31/2019] [Accepted: 07/31/2019] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Skin is a very suitable target for gene therapy and DNA vaccination due to its accessibility, its surface and its ability to produce transgenes. Gene electrotransfer (GET) to the skin is under development for clinical applications for DNA vaccine or local treatment such as wound healing. Local treatments are effective if the expression of the plasmid affects only the local environment (skin) by inducing an efficient concentration over a prolonged period. In this study, we evaluate the control of expression in the skin of a plasmid coding a fluorescent protein by its CpG (cytosine-phosphate-guanine motif) content. Two fluorescent reporter genes are evaluated: tdTomato and GFP. The expression is followed on the long term by in vivo fluorescence imaging. Our results show that GET mediated expression in the skin can be controlled by the CpG content of the plasmid. Long term expression (>120 days) can be obtained at high level with CpG-free constructs associated with a proper design of the electrodes where the field distribution mediating the gene electrotransfer is present deep in the skin.
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22
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Kos S, Lopes A, Preat V, Cemazar M, Lampreht Tratar U, Ucakar B, Vanvarenberg K, Sersa G, Vandermeulen G. Intradermal DNA vaccination combined with dual CTLA-4 and PD-1 blockade provides robust tumor immunity in murine melanoma. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0217762. [PMID: 31150505 PMCID: PMC6544376 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0217762] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2018] [Accepted: 05/19/2019] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
We aimed to explore whether the combination of intradermal DNA vaccination, to boost immune response against melanoma antigens, and immune checkpoint blockade, to alleviate immunosuppression, improves antitumor effectiveness in a murine B16F10 melanoma tumor model. Compared to single treatments, a combination of intradermal DNA vaccination (ovalbumin or gp100 plasmid adjuvanted with IL12 plasmid) and immune checkpoint CTLA-4/PD-1 blockade resulted in a significant delay in tumor growth and prolonged survival of treated mice. Strong activation of the immune response induced by combined treatment resulted in a significant antigen-specific immune response, with elevated production of antigen-specific IgG antibodies and increased intratumoral CD8+ infiltration. These results indicate a potential application of the combined DNA vaccination and immune checkpoint blockade, specifically, to enhance the efficacy of DNA vaccines and to overcome the resistance to immune checkpoint inhibitors in certain cancer types.
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Affiliation(s)
- Spela Kos
- Department of Experimental Oncology, Institute of Oncology Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Alessandra Lopes
- Advanced Drug Delivery and Biomaterials, Louvain Drug Research Institute, Université Catholique de Louvain, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Veronique Preat
- Advanced Drug Delivery and Biomaterials, Louvain Drug Research Institute, Université Catholique de Louvain, Brussels, Belgium
- * E-mail: (GS); (VP)
| | - Maja Cemazar
- Department of Experimental Oncology, Institute of Oncology Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
- Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Primorska, Izola, Slovenia
| | - Ursa Lampreht Tratar
- Department of Experimental Oncology, Institute of Oncology Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Bernard Ucakar
- Advanced Drug Delivery and Biomaterials, Louvain Drug Research Institute, Université Catholique de Louvain, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Kevin Vanvarenberg
- Advanced Drug Delivery and Biomaterials, Louvain Drug Research Institute, Université Catholique de Louvain, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Gregor Sersa
- Department of Experimental Oncology, Institute of Oncology Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
- Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
- * E-mail: (GS); (VP)
| | - Gaelle Vandermeulen
- Advanced Drug Delivery and Biomaterials, Louvain Drug Research Institute, Université Catholique de Louvain, Brussels, Belgium
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23
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Sun X, Zeng L, Huang Y. Transcutaneous delivery of DNA/mRNA for cancer therapeutic vaccination. J Gene Med 2019; 21:e3089. [PMID: 30958606 DOI: 10.1002/jgm.3089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2019] [Revised: 03/17/2019] [Accepted: 03/22/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Therapeutic vaccination is a promising strategy for the immunotherapy of cancers. It eradicates cancer cells by evoking and strengthening the patient's own immune system. Because of the easy access and sophisticated immune networks, the skin becomes an ideal target organ for vaccination. Genetic vaccines have been widely investigated, with the advantages of the delivery of multiple antigens and a lower cost for production compared to protein/peptide vaccines. This review summarizes the advances made with respect to the transcutaneous delivery of DNA/mRNA for cancer therapeutic vaccination and also gives a brief description of the immunological milieu of the skin and the importance of dendritic cell-targeting in vaccine delivery, as well as the technologies that aim to facilitate antigen delivery and modulate antigen-presenting cells, thus improving cellular responses. The applications of genetic vaccines encoding tumor antigens delivered through the skin route, both in preclinical and clinical trials, are outlined.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoyi Sun
- School of Medicine, Zhejiang University City College, Hangzhou, China
| | - Linghui Zeng
- School of Medicine, Zhejiang University City College, Hangzhou, China
| | - Yongzhuo Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
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24
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Rubin AE, Usta OB, Schloss R, Yarmush M, Golberg A. Selective Inactivation of Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus epidermidis with Pulsed Electric Fields and Antibiotics. Adv Wound Care (New Rochelle) 2019; 8:136-148. [PMID: 31737412 DOI: 10.1089/wound.2018.0819] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2018] [Accepted: 10/15/2018] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Objective: Increasing numbers of multidrug-resistant bacteria make many antibiotics ineffective; therefore, new approaches to combat microbial infections are needed. In addition, antibiotics are not selective-they kill pathogenic organisms as well as organisms that could positively contribute to wound healing (bio flora). Approach: Here we report on selective inactivation of Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus epidermidis, potential pathogens involved in wound infections with pulsed electric fields (PEFs) and antibiotics (mix of penicillin, streptomycin, and nystatin). Results: Using a Taguchi experimental design in vitro, we found that, under similar electric field strengths, the pulse duration is the most important parameter for P. aeruginosa inactivation, followed by the number of pulses and pulse frequency. P. aeruginosa, a potential severe pathogen, is more sensitive than the less pathogenic S. epidermidis to PEF (alone or in combination with antibiotics). Applying 200 pulses with a duration of 60 μs at 2.8 Hz, the minimum electric fields of 308.8 ± 28.3 and 378.4 ± 12.9 V/mm were required to inactive P. aeruginosa and S. epidermidis, respectively. Addition of antibiotics reduced the threshold for minimum electric fields required to inactivate the bacteria. Innovation: This study provides essential information, such as critical electric field parameters for bacteria inactivation, required for developing in vivo treatment and clinical protocols for using PEF for wound healing. Conclusion: A combination of PEFs with antibiotics reduces the electric field threshold required for bacteria disinfection. Such an approach simplifies devices required to disinfect large areas of infected wounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrey Ethan Rubin
- Porter School of Environment and Earth Sciences, Tel Aviv University Ramat Aviv, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Osman Berk Usta
- Center for Engineering in Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital Shriners Burn Hospital for Children and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Rene Schloss
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Rutgers University, Piscataway, New Jersey
| | - Martin Yarmush
- Center for Engineering in Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital Shriners Burn Hospital for Children and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Rutgers University, Piscataway, New Jersey
| | - Alexander Golberg
- Porter School of Environment and Earth Sciences, Tel Aviv University Ramat Aviv, Tel Aviv, Israel
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Milevoj N, Tratar UL, Nemec A, Brožič A, Žnidar K, Serša G, Čemažar M, Tozon N. A combination of electrochemotherapy, gene electrotransfer of plasmid encoding canine IL-12 and cytoreductive surgery in the treatment of canine oral malignant melanoma. Res Vet Sci 2019; 122:40-49. [PMID: 30453179 DOI: 10.1016/j.rvsc.2018.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2018] [Revised: 10/15/2018] [Accepted: 11/11/2018] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to evaluate the safety and efficacy of the combination of electrochemotherapy (ECT) with bleomycin and gene electrotransfer (GET) of plasmid encoding canine interleukin 12 (IL-12) for the treatment of canine oral malignant melanoma (OMM). Our focus was to determine the effect of the treatment on achieving local tumor control and stimulation of an antitumor immune response. Nine dogs with histologically confirmed OMM stage I to III were included in a prospective, non-randomized study. The dogs were treated with a combination of cytoreductive surgery, ECT and IL-12 GET, which was repeated up to five times, depending on the clinical response to the treatment, evaluated according to the follow-up protocol (7, 14 and 28 days after, the last treatment). One month after treatment, the objective response (OR) rate was 67% (6/9). Median survival time (MST) was 6 months and, even though the disease progressed in 8/9 patients at the end of the observation period (2 to 22 months), four animals were euthanized due to tumor-unrelated reasons. In addition, we observed a decline in the percentage of regulatory T cells (Treg) in the peripheral blood in the course of the treatment, which could be attributed to a systemic antitumor response to IL-12 GET. The results of this study suggest that a combination of ECT and IL-12 GET may be beneficial for dogs with OMM, especially when other treatment approaches are not acceptable due to their invasiveness or cost.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nina Milevoj
- University of Ljubljana, Veterinary Faculty, Small Animal Clinic, Cesta v Mestni log 47, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | | | - Ana Nemec
- University of Ljubljana, Veterinary Faculty, Small Animal Clinic, Cesta v Mestni log 47, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Andreja Brožič
- Institute of Oncology Ljubljana, Zaloška cesta 2, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Katarina Žnidar
- University of Primorska, Faculty of Health Sciences, Polje 42, 6310 Isola, Slovenia
| | - Gregor Serša
- Institute of Oncology Ljubljana, Zaloška cesta 2, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Maja Čemažar
- Institute of Oncology Ljubljana, Zaloška cesta 2, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; University of Primorska, Faculty of Health Sciences, Polje 42, 6310 Isola, Slovenia
| | - Nataša Tozon
- University of Ljubljana, Veterinary Faculty, Small Animal Clinic, Cesta v Mestni log 47, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia.
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Pasquet L, Chabot S, Bellard E, Rols MP, Teissie J, Golzio M. Noninvasive Gene Electrotransfer in Skin. Hum Gene Ther Methods 2019; 30:17-22. [DOI: 10.1089/hgtb.2018.051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Lise Pasquet
- Institut de Pharmacologie et de Biologie Structurale, Universite de Toulouse, CNRS, Toulouse, France
| | - Sophie Chabot
- Institut de Pharmacologie et de Biologie Structurale, Universite de Toulouse, CNRS, Toulouse, France
| | - Elisabeth Bellard
- Institut de Pharmacologie et de Biologie Structurale, Universite de Toulouse, CNRS, Toulouse, France
| | - Marie-Pierre Rols
- Institut de Pharmacologie et de Biologie Structurale, Universite de Toulouse, CNRS, Toulouse, France
| | - Justin Teissie
- Institut de Pharmacologie et de Biologie Structurale, Universite de Toulouse, CNRS, Toulouse, France
| | - Muriel Golzio
- Institut de Pharmacologie et de Biologie Structurale, Universite de Toulouse, CNRS, Toulouse, France
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Pasquet L, Chabot S, Bellard E, Markelc B, Rols MP, Reynes JP, Tiraby G, Couillaud F, Teissie J, Golzio M. Safe and efficient novel approach for non-invasive gene electrotransfer to skin. Sci Rep 2018; 8:16833. [PMID: 30443028 PMCID: PMC6237991 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-34968-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2018] [Accepted: 10/25/2018] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Gene transfer into cells or tissue by application of electric pulses (i.e. gene electrotransfer (GET)) is a non-viral gene delivery method that is becoming increasingly attractive for clinical applications. In order to make GET progress to wide clinical usage its efficacy needs to be improved and the safety of the method has to be confirmed. Therefore, the aim of our study was to increase GET efficacy in skin, by optimizing electric pulse parameters and the design of electrodes. We evaluated the safety of our novel approach by assaying the thermal stress effect of GET conditions and the biodistribution of a cytokine expressing plasmid. Transfection efficacy of different pulse parameters was determined using two reporter genes encoding for the green fluorescent protein (GFP) and the tdTomato fluorescent protein, respectively. GET was performed using non-invasive contact electrodes immediately after intradermal injection of plasmid DNA into mouse skin. Fluorescence imaging of transfected skin showed that a sophistication in the pulse parameters could be selected to get greater transfection efficacy in comparison to the standard ones. Delivery of electric pulses only mildly induced expression of the heat shock protein Hsp70 in a luminescent reporting transgenic mouse model, demonstrating that there were no drastic stress effects. The plasmid was not detected in other organs and was found only at the site of treatment for a limited period of time. In conclusion, we set up a novel approach for GET combining new electric field parameters with high voltage short pulses and medium voltage long pulses using contact electrodes, to obtain a high expression of both fluorescent reporter and therapeutic genes while showing full safety in living animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lise Pasquet
- Institut de Pharmacologie et de Biologie Structurale, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, UPS, BP 64182, 205 Route de Narbonne, Toulouse, F-31077, France
| | - Sophie Chabot
- Institut de Pharmacologie et de Biologie Structurale, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, UPS, BP 64182, 205 Route de Narbonne, Toulouse, F-31077, France
| | - Elisabeth Bellard
- Institut de Pharmacologie et de Biologie Structurale, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, UPS, BP 64182, 205 Route de Narbonne, Toulouse, F-31077, France
| | - Bostjan Markelc
- Institut de Pharmacologie et de Biologie Structurale, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, UPS, BP 64182, 205 Route de Narbonne, Toulouse, F-31077, France
| | - Marie-Pierre Rols
- Institut de Pharmacologie et de Biologie Structurale, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, UPS, BP 64182, 205 Route de Narbonne, Toulouse, F-31077, France
| | - Jean-Paul Reynes
- Invivogen Cayla SAS, 5 rue Jean Rodier, Zone industrielle de Montaudran, 31400, Toulouse, France
| | - Gérard Tiraby
- Invivogen Cayla SAS, 5 rue Jean Rodier, Zone industrielle de Montaudran, 31400, Toulouse, France
| | - Franck Couillaud
- Laboratoire d'Imagerie Moléculaire et Thérapies innovantes en Oncologie (IMOTION) EA 7435, Université de Bordeaux, Bordeaux, France
| | - Justin Teissie
- Institut de Pharmacologie et de Biologie Structurale, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, UPS, BP 64182, 205 Route de Narbonne, Toulouse, F-31077, France.
| | - Muriel Golzio
- Institut de Pharmacologie et de Biologie Structurale, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, UPS, BP 64182, 205 Route de Narbonne, Toulouse, F-31077, France.
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Bulysheva A, Hornef J, Edelblute C, Jiang C, Schoenbach K, Lundberg C, Malik MA, Heller R. Coalesced thermal and electrotransfer mediated delivery of plasmid DNA to the skin. Bioelectrochemistry 2018; 125:127-133. [PMID: 30449324 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioelechem.2018.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2017] [Revised: 10/21/2018] [Accepted: 10/21/2018] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Efficient gene delivery and expression in the skin can be a promising minimally invasive technique for therapeutic clinical applications for immunotherapy, vaccinations, wound healing, cancer, and peripheral artery disease. One of the challenges for efficient gene electrotransfer (GET) to skin in vivo is confinement of expression to the epithelium. Another challenge involves tissue damage. Optimizing gene expression profiles, while minimizing tissue damage are necessary for therapeutic applications. Previously, we established that heating pretreatment to 43 °C enhances GET in vitro. We observed a similar trend in vivo, with an IR-pretreatment for skin heating prior to GET. Currently, we tested a range of GET conditions in vivo in guinea pigs with and without preheating the skin to ~43 °C. IR-laser heating and conduction heating were tested in conjunction with GET. In vivo electrotransfer to the skin by moderately elevating tissue temperature can lead to enhanced gene expression, as well as achieve gene transfer in epidermal, dermal, hypodermal and muscle tissue layers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Bulysheva
- Frank Reidy Research Center for Bioelectrics, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA, USA.
| | - James Hornef
- Frank Reidy Research Center for Bioelectrics, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA, USA
| | - Chelsea Edelblute
- Frank Reidy Research Center for Bioelectrics, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA, USA
| | - Chunqi Jiang
- Frank Reidy Research Center for Bioelectrics, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA, USA
| | - Karl Schoenbach
- Frank Reidy Research Center for Bioelectrics, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA, USA
| | - Cathryn Lundberg
- Frank Reidy Research Center for Bioelectrics, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA, USA
| | - Muhammad Arif Malik
- Frank Reidy Research Center for Bioelectrics, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA, USA
| | - Richard Heller
- Frank Reidy Research Center for Bioelectrics, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA, USA; School of Medical Diagnostics and Translational Sciences, College of Health and Sciences, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA, USA
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Abstract
Micro and nano technologies are of increasing importance in microfluidics devices used for electroporation (electroporation - the permeabilization of the cell membrane with brief high electric field pulses). Electrochemical reactions of electrolysis occur whenever an electric current flows between an electrode and an ionic solution. It can have substantial detrimental effects, both on the cells and solutions during the electroporation. As electrolysis is a surface phenomenon, between electrodes and solution, the extent of electrolysis is increased in micro and nano electroporation over macro-electroporation, because the surface area of the electrodes in micro and nano electroporation is much larger. A possible way to eliminate the electrolytic effect is to develop non-electrolytic microelectroporation by coating the microelectroporation devices with a dielectric insulating layer. In this study, we examine the effect of a dielectric insulating layer on the performance of a singularity microelectroporation device that we have recently designed. Using numerical analysis, we study the effects of various design parameters including, input sinusoidal voltage amplitude and frequency, geometrical configuration and material electrical properties on the electroporation performance of the non-electrolytic microelectroporation device. In the simulation, we used properties of four real dielectric materials and four solutions of interest for microelectroporation. We characterized the effect of various design parameters of relevance to singularity based microelectroporation, on non-electrolytic microelectroporation. Interestingly, we found that the system behaves in some aspects as a filter and in many circumstances saturation of performance is reached. After saturation is reached, changes in parameters will not affect the performance of the device.
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Chen X. Current and future technological advances in transdermal gene delivery. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2018; 127:85-105. [PMID: 29273516 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2017.12.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2017] [Revised: 11/04/2017] [Accepted: 12/15/2017] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Transdermal gene delivery holds significant advantages as it is able to minimize the problems of systemic administration such as enzymatic degradation, systemic toxicity, and poor delivery to target tissues. This technology has the potential to transform the treatment and prevention of a range of diseases. However, the skin poses a great barrier for gene delivery because of the "bricks-and-mortar" structure of the stratum corneum and the tight junctions between keratinocytes in the epidermis. This review systematically summarizes the typical physical and chemical approaches to overcome these barriers and facilitate gene delivery via skin for applications in vaccination, wound healing, skin cancers and skin diseases. Next, the advantages and disadvantages of different approaches are discussed and the insights for future development are provided.
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