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Tian Y, Wang X, Shao D, Zhao W, Chen R, Huang Q. Establishment and evaluation of detection methods for process-specific residual host cell protein and residual host cell DNA in biological preparation. Cell Biochem Funct 2024; 42:e3986. [PMID: 38504442 DOI: 10.1002/cbf.3986] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2023] [Revised: 03/08/2024] [Accepted: 03/10/2024] [Indexed: 03/21/2024]
Abstract
To establish accurate detection methods of process-specific Escherichia coli residual host cell protein (HCP) and residual host cell DNA (rcDNA) in recombinant biological preparations. Taking the purification process of GLP expressed by E. coli as a specific-process model, the HCP of empty E. coli was intercepted to immunize mice and rabbits. Using IgG from immunized rabbits as the coating antibody and mouse immune serum as the second sandwich antibody, a process-specific enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for E. coli HCP was established. Targeting the 16S gene of E. coli, ddPCR was used to obtain the absolute copies of rcDNA in samples. Non-process-specific commercial ELISA kit and the process-specific ELISA established in this study were used to detect the HCP in GLP preparation. About 62% of HCPs, which should be process-specific HCPs, could not be detected by the non-process-specific commercial ELISA kit. The sensitivity of established ELISA can reach 338 pg/mL. The rcDNA could be absolutely quantitated by ddPCR, for the copies of rcDNA in three multiple diluted samples showed a reduced gradient. While the copies of rcDNA in three multiple diluted samples could not be distinguished by the qPCR. Process-specific ELISA has high sensitivity in detecting process-specific E. coli HCP. The absolutely quantitative ddPCR has much higher accuracy than the relatively quantitative qPCR, it is a nucleic acid quantitative method that is expected to replace qPCR in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yixiao Tian
- Key Laboratory for Space Biosciences and Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi, China
| | - Xinyue Wang
- Key Laboratory for Space Biosciences and Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi, China
| | - Dongyan Shao
- Key Laboratory for Space Biosciences and Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi, China
| | - Wen Zhao
- Key Laboratory for Space Biosciences and Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi, China
| | - Renan Chen
- Shaanxi Province Cancer Hospital, Xi'an, Shaanxi, China
| | - Qingsheng Huang
- Key Laboratory for Space Biosciences and Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi, China
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Sheng-Fowler L, Tu W, Phy K, Macauley J, Lanning L, Lewis AM, Peden K. Evaluating the sensitivity of newborn rats and newborn hamsters to oncogenic DNA. Biologicals 2023; 84:101724. [PMID: 37977030 DOI: 10.1016/j.biologicals.2023.101724] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2023] [Accepted: 10/31/2023] [Indexed: 11/19/2023] Open
Abstract
To evaluate the risk of residual cellular DNA in vaccines manufactured in tumorigenic cell lines, we have been establishing in vivo assays to quantify the oncogenic activity of DNA. We had generated three oncogene-expression plasmids: pMSV-T24-H-ras, which expresses activated H-ras; pMSV-c-myc, which expresses c-myc; and pMSV-T24-H-ras/MSV-c-myc, which expresses both oncogenes. Tumors were induced in mice by pMSV-T24-H-ras plus pMSV-c-myc or by pMSV-T24-H-ras/MSV-c-myc. Because newborn hamsters and newborn rats have been recommended for oncogenicity testing of the DNA from tumorigenic mammalian cell-substrates used for vaccine production, we evaluated their sensitivity. Newborn hamsters and rats were inoculated with different doses of pMSV-T24-H-ras/MSV-c-myc to determine their sensitivity to tumor induction and with the single-oncogene-expression plasmids to determine whether single oncogenes could induce tumors. Newborn rats were more sensitive than newborn hamsters, and activated H-ras but not c-myc induced tumors in newborns of both rodent species. DNA from four cell lines established from tumors induced by pMSV-T24-H-ras/MSV-c-myc was inoculated into newborn rats. Because no tumors were induced by this cellular DNA, which should be optimal as it contains both oncogenes linked and present in several copies, we conclude that available in vivo models are not sensitive enough to detect the oncogenicity of cellular DNA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Sheng-Fowler
- Division of Viral Products, Office of Vaccines Research and Review, Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, MD, 20993, USA
| | - Wei Tu
- Division of Viral Products, Office of Vaccines Research and Review, Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, MD, 20993, USA
| | - Kathryn Phy
- Division of Viral Products, Office of Vaccines Research and Review, Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, MD, 20993, USA
| | - Juliete Macauley
- Division of Viral Products, Office of Vaccines Research and Review, Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, MD, 20993, USA
| | - Lynda Lanning
- National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD, 20888, USA
| | - Andrew M Lewis
- Division of Viral Products, Office of Vaccines Research and Review, Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, MD, 20993, USA
| | - Keith Peden
- Division of Viral Products, Office of Vaccines Research and Review, Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, MD, 20993, USA.
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Geurink L, van Tricht E, van der Burg D, Scheppink G, Pajic B, Dudink J, Sänger-van de Griend C. Sixteen capillary electrophoresis applications for viral vaccine analysis. Electrophoresis 2021; 43:1068-1090. [PMID: 34739151 DOI: 10.1002/elps.202100269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2021] [Revised: 10/14/2021] [Accepted: 10/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
A broad range of CE applications from our organization is reviewed to give a flavor of the use of CE within the field of vaccine analyses. Applicability of CE for viral vaccine characterization, and release and stability testing of seasonal influenza virosomal vaccines, universal subunit influenza vaccines, Sabin inactivated polio vaccines (sIPV), and adenovirus vector vaccines were demonstrated. Diverse CZE, CE-SDS, CGE, and cIEF methods were developed, validated, and applied for virus, protein, posttranslational modifications, DNA, and excipient concentration determinations, as well as for the integrity and composition verifications, and identity testing (e.g., CZE for intact virus particles, CE-SDS application for hemagglutinin quantification and influenza strain identification, chloride or bromide determination in process samples). Results were supported by other methods such as RP-HPLC, dynamic light scattering (DLS), and zeta potential measurements. Overall, 16 CE methods are presented that were developed and applied, comprising six adenovirus methods, five viral protein methods, and methods for antibodies determination of glycans, host cell-DNA, excipient chloride, and process impurity bromide. These methods were applied to support in-process control, release, stability, process- and product characterization and development, and critical reagent testing. Thirteen methods were validated. Intact virus particles were analyzed at concentrations as low as 0.8 pmol/L. Overall, CE took viral vaccine testing beyond what was previously possible, improved process and product understanding, and, in total, safety, efficacy, and quality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lars Geurink
- Janssen Vaccines and Prevention B.V., CN Leiden, The Netherlands.,Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Biomedical Centre, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Ewoud van Tricht
- Janssen Vaccines and Prevention B.V., CN Leiden, The Netherlands
| | | | - Gerard Scheppink
- Janssen Vaccines and Prevention B.V., CN Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Bojana Pajic
- Janssen Vaccines and Prevention B.V., CN Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Justin Dudink
- Janssen Vaccines and Prevention B.V., CN Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Cari Sänger-van de Griend
- Janssen Vaccines and Prevention B.V., CN Leiden, The Netherlands.,Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Biomedical Centre, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden.,Kantisto B.V., Baarn, The Netherlands
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The science of vaccine safety: Summary of meeting at Wellcome Trust. Vaccine 2020; 38:1869-1880. [PMID: 31987690 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2020.01.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2019] [Revised: 12/18/2019] [Accepted: 01/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Vaccines are everywhere hugely successful but are also under attack. The reason for the latter is the perception by some people that vaccines are unsafe. However that may be, vaccine safety, life any other scientific subject, must be constantly studied. It was from this point of view that a meeting was organized at the Wellcome Trust in London in May 2019 to assess some aspects of vaccine safety as subjects for scientific study. The objective of the meeting was to assess what is known beyond reasonable doubt and conversely what areas need additional studies. Although the meeting could not cover all aspects of vaccine safety science, many of the most important issues were addressed by a group of about 30 experts to determine what is already known and what additional studies are merited to assess the safety of the vaccines currently in use. The meeting began with reviews of the current situation in different parts of the world, followed by reviews of specific controversial areas, including the incidence of certain conditions after vaccination and the safety of certain vaccine components. Lastly, information about the human papillomavirus vaccine was considered because its safety has been particularly challenged by vaccine opponents. The following is a summary of the meeting findings. In addition to this summary, the meeting organizers will explore opportunities to perform studies that would enlarge knowledge of vaccine safety.
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Development and Validation of Quantitative Real-Time PCR for the Detection of Residual CHO Host Cell DNA and Optimization of Sample Pretreatment Method in Biopharmaceutical Products. Biol Proced Online 2019; 21:17. [PMID: 31496923 PMCID: PMC6717637 DOI: 10.1186/s12575-019-0105-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2019] [Accepted: 06/24/2019] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Background The presence of residual DNA carried by biological products in the body may lead to an increased oncogenicity, infectivity, and immunomodulatory risk. Therefore, current agencies including WHO, EU, and the FDA limited the accepted amounts of residual DNA (less than 10 ng or 100 pg/dose). Among the methods of detecting residual DNA, qPCR is considered to be the most practical for residual DNA quantitation due to its sensitivity, accuracy, precision, and time-saving. Results In this study, the detection capacity of this method was determined by comparing the detected concentration of the commercial kit and the self-designed primer/probe set after the same treatment of the extraction method. Then, a universal sample pretreatment method based on a co-precipitant was optimized. The validation results demonstrated that the method has appropriate specificity, sensitivity, accuracy, and precision according to ICH guidelines. The limit of detection and quantitation reached 3 fg/ul and 0.3 pg/reaction respectively, which satisfies the requirement of limit of residual DNA detection in biologics. Spike recovery (82.3–105.7%) showed that the proposed qPCR assay was accurate and has good extraction efficiency. Moreover, the precision of the method based on intra- and inter-assay was 0.065–0.452% and 0.471–1.312%, respectively. Conclusions These results all indicated that the method for determination of residual DNA in biological products expressed from CHO cells is sensitive, accurate and robust. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12575-019-0105-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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A One-Step Protocol for Chromatographic Purification of Non-recombinant Exogenous Bacterial Enzyme: Nuclease of Serratia marcescens. BIONANOSCIENCE 2016. [DOI: 10.1007/s12668-016-0226-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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André M, Reghin S, Boussard E, Lempereur L, Maisonneuve S. Universal real-time PCR assay for quantitation and size evaluation of residual cell DNA in human viral vaccines. Biologicals 2016; 44:139-49. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biologicals.2016.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2015] [Revised: 11/26/2015] [Accepted: 03/05/2016] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
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Aubrit F, Perugi F, Léon A, Guéhenneux F, Champion-Arnaud P, Lahmar M, Schwamborn K. Cell substrates for the production of viral vaccines. Vaccine 2015; 33:5905-12. [PMID: 26187258 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2015.06.110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2015] [Revised: 06/12/2015] [Accepted: 06/26/2015] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Vaccines have been used for centuries to protect people and animals against infectious diseases. For vaccine production, it has become evident that cell culture technology can be considered as a key milestone and has been the result of decades of progress. The development and implementation of cell substrates have permitted massive and safe production of viral vaccines. The demand in new vaccines against emerging viral diseases, the increasing vaccine production volumes, and the stringent safety rules for manufacturing have made cell substrates mandatory viral vaccine producer factories. In this review, we focus on cell substrates for the production of vaccines against human viral diseases. Depending on the nature of the vaccine, choice of the cell substrate is critical. Each manufacturer intending to develop a new vaccine candidate should assess several cell substrates during the early development phase in order to select the most convenient for the application. First, as vaccine safety is quite naturally a central concern of Regulatory Agencies, the cell substrate has to answer the regulatory rules stringency. In addition, the cell substrate has to be competitive in terms of viral-specific production yields and manufacturing costs. No cell substrate, even the so-called "designer" cell lines, is able to fulfil all the requested criteria for all viral vaccines. Therefore, the availability of a variety of cell substrates for vaccine production is essential because it improves the chance to successfully respond to the current and future needs of vaccines linked to new emerging or re-emerging infectious diseases (e.g. pandemic flu, Ebola, and Chikungunya outbreaks).
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Affiliation(s)
- Françoise Aubrit
- Vaccines Research & Discovery Department, Valneva SE, 6 rue Alain Bombard, 44800 Saint-Herblain, France.
| | - Fabien Perugi
- Vaccines Research & Discovery Department, Valneva SE, 6 rue Alain Bombard, 44800 Saint-Herblain, France.
| | - Arnaud Léon
- Vaccines Research & Discovery Department, Valneva SE, 6 rue Alain Bombard, 44800 Saint-Herblain, France.
| | - Fabienne Guéhenneux
- Vaccines Research & Discovery Department, Valneva SE, 6 rue Alain Bombard, 44800 Saint-Herblain, France.
| | - Patrick Champion-Arnaud
- Vaccines Research & Discovery Department, Valneva SE, 6 rue Alain Bombard, 44800 Saint-Herblain, France.
| | - Mehdi Lahmar
- Vaccines Research & Discovery Department, Valneva SE, 6 rue Alain Bombard, 44800 Saint-Herblain, France.
| | - Klaus Schwamborn
- Vaccines Research & Discovery Department, Valneva SE, 6 rue Alain Bombard, 44800 Saint-Herblain, France.
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Yang H, Wei Z, Schenerman M. A Statistical Approach to Determining Criticality of Residual Host Cell DNA. J Biopharm Stat 2014; 25:234-46. [DOI: 10.1080/10543406.2014.972514] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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Sheng-Fowler L, Tu W, Fu H, Murata H, Lanning L, Foseh G, Macauley J, Blair D, Hughes SH, Coffin JM, Lewis AM, Peden K. A mouse strain defective in both T cells and NK cells has enhanced sensitivity to tumor induction by plasmid DNA expressing both activated H-Ras and c-Myc. PLoS One 2014; 9:e108926. [PMID: 25302710 PMCID: PMC4193875 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0108926] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2014] [Accepted: 09/03/2014] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
As part of safety studies to evaluate the risk of residual cellular DNA in vaccines manufactured in tumorigenic cells, we have been developing in vivo assays to detect and quantify the oncogenic activity of DNA. We generated a plasmid expressing both an activated human H-ras gene and murine c-myc gene and showed that 1 µg of this plasmid, pMSV-T24-H-ras/MSV-c-myc, was capable of inducing tumors in newborn NIH Swiss mice. However, to be able to detect the oncogenicity of dominant activated oncogenes in cellular DNA, a more sensitive system was needed. In this paper, we demonstrate that the newborn CD3 epsilon transgenic mouse, which is defective in both T-cell and NK-cell functions, can detect the oncogenic activity of 25 ng of the circular form of pMSV-T24-H-ras/MSV-c-myc. When this plasmid was inoculated as linear DNA, amounts of DNA as low as 800 pg were capable of inducing tumors. Animals were found that had multiple tumors, and these tumors were independent and likely clonal. These results demonstrate that the newborn CD3 epsilon mouse is highly sensitive for the detection of oncogenic activity of DNA. To determine whether it can detect the oncogenic activity of cellular DNA derived from four human tumor-cell lines (HeLa, A549, HT-1080, and CEM), DNA (100 µg) was inoculated into newborn CD3 epsilon mice both in the presence of 1 µg of linear pMSV-T24-H-ras/MSV-c-myc as positive control and in its absence. While tumors were induced in 100% of mice with the positive-control plasmid, no tumors were induced in mice receiving any of the tumor DNAs alone. These results demonstrate that detection of oncogenes in cellular DNA derived from four human tumor-derived cell lines in this mouse system was not possible; the results also show the importance of including a positive-control plasmid to detect inhibitory effects of the cellular DNA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Sheng-Fowler
- Division of Viral Products, Office of Vaccines Research and Review, Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, Food and Drug Administration, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Wei Tu
- Division of Viral Products, Office of Vaccines Research and Review, Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, Food and Drug Administration, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Haiqing Fu
- Division of Viral Products, Office of Vaccines Research and Review, Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, Food and Drug Administration, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Haruhiko Murata
- Division of Viral Products, Office of Vaccines Research and Review, Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, Food and Drug Administration, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Lynda Lanning
- National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Rockville, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Gideon Foseh
- Division of Viral Products, Office of Vaccines Research and Review, Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, Food and Drug Administration, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Juliete Macauley
- Division of Viral Products, Office of Vaccines Research and Review, Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, Food and Drug Administration, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Donald Blair
- National Cancer Institute, Rockville, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Stephen H. Hughes
- Frederick Cancer Research Facility, National Cancer Institute, Frederick, Maryland, United States of America
| | - John M. Coffin
- Frederick Cancer Research Facility, National Cancer Institute, Frederick, Maryland, United States of America
- Tufts University, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Andrew M. Lewis
- Division of Viral Products, Office of Vaccines Research and Review, Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, Food and Drug Administration, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Keith Peden
- Division of Viral Products, Office of Vaccines Research and Review, Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, Food and Drug Administration, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Shen X, Chen X, Tabor DE, Liu Y, Albarghouthi M, Zhang YF, Galinski MS. Size analysis of residual host cell DNA in cell culture-produced vaccines by capillary gel electrophoresis. Biologicals 2013; 41:201-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biologicals.2012.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2012] [Revised: 11/27/2012] [Accepted: 12/04/2012] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
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Wang X, Morgan DM, Wang G, Mozier NM. Residual DNA analysis in biologics development: Review of measurement and quantitation technologies and future directions. Biotechnol Bioeng 2011; 109:307-17. [DOI: 10.1002/bit.23343] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2011] [Revised: 08/09/2011] [Accepted: 09/19/2011] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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Onions D, Egan W, Jarrett R, Novicki D, Gregersen JP. Validation of the safety of MDCK cells as a substrate for the production of a cell-derived influenza vaccine. Biologicals 2011; 38:544-51. [PMID: 20537553 PMCID: PMC7129197 DOI: 10.1016/j.biologicals.2010.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2010] [Revised: 04/01/2010] [Accepted: 04/07/2010] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Cell culture-based production methods may assist in meeting increasing demand for seasonal influenza vaccines and developing production flexibility required for addressing influenza pandemics. MDCK-33016PF cells are used in propagation of a cell-based seasonal influenza vaccine (Optaflu®); but, like most continuous cell lines, can grow in immunocompromised mice to produce tumors. It is, therefore, essential that no residual cells remain within the vaccine, that cell lysates or DNA are not oncogenic, and that the cell substrate does not contain oncogenic viruses or oncogenic DNA. Multiple, redundant processes ensure the safety of influenza vaccines produced in MDCK-33016PF cells. The probability of a residual cell being present in a dose of vaccine is approximately 1 in 1034. Residual MDCK-DNA is ≤10 ng per dose and the ß-propiolactone used to inactivate influenza virus results in reduction of detectable DNA to less than 200 base pairs (bp). Degenerate PCR and specific PCR confirm exclusion of oncogenic viruses. The manufacturing process has been validated for its capacity to remove and inactivate viruses. We conclude that the theoretical risks arising from manufacturing seasonal influenza vaccine using MDCK-33016PF cells are reduced to levels that are effectively zero by the multiple, orthogonal processes used during production.
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Knezevic I, Stacey G, Petricciani J, Sheets R. Evaluation of cell substrates for the production of biologicals: Revision of WHO recommendations. Biologicals 2010; 38:162-9. [PMID: 19818645 DOI: 10.1016/j.biologicals.2009.08.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2009] [Accepted: 08/21/2009] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
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