The effect of the nonionic block copolymer pluronic P85 on gene expression in mouse muscle and antigen-presenting cells

The Progress of Non-Viral Materials and Methods for Gene Delivery to Skeletal Muscle

Since Jon A. Wolff found skeletal muscle cells being able to express foreign genes and Russell J. Mumper increased the gene transfection efficiency into the myocytes by adding polymers, skeletal muscles have become a potential gene delivery and expression target. Different methods have been developing to deliver transgene into skeletal muscles. Among them, viral vectors may achieve potent gene delivery efficiency. However, the potential for triggering biosafety risks limited their clinical applications. Therefore, non-viral biomaterial-mediated methods with reliable biocompatibility are promising tools for intramuscular gene delivery in situ. In recent years, a series of advanced non-viral gene delivery materials and related methods have been reported, such as polymers, liposomes, cell penetrating peptides, as well as physical delivery methods. In this review, we summarized the research progresses and challenges in non-viral intramuscular gene delivery materials and related methods, focusing on the achievements and future directions of polymers.

Mannosylated Cationic Copolymers for Gene Delivery to Macrophages

Macrophages are desirable targets for gene therapy of cancer and other diseases. Cationic diblock copolymers of polyethylene glycol (PEG) and poly-L-lysine (PLL) or poly{N-[N-(2-aminoethyl)-2-aminoethyl]aspartamide} (pAsp(DET)) are synthesized and used to form polyplexes with a plasmid DNA (pDNA) that are decorated with mannose moieties, serving as the targeting ligands for the C type lectin receptors displayed at the surface of macrophages. The PEG-b-PLL copolymers are known for its cytotoxicity, so PEG-b-PLL-based polyplexes are cross-linked using reducible reagent dithiobis(succinimidyl propionate) (DSP). The cross-linked polyplexes display low toxicity to both mouse embryonic fibroblasts NIH/3T3 cell line and mouse bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMMΦ). In macrophages mannose-decorated polyplexes demonstrate an ≈8 times higher transfection efficiency. The cross-linking of the polyplexes decrease the toxicity, but the transfection enhancement is moderate. The PEG-b-pAsp(DET) copolymers display low toxicity with respect to the IC-21 murine macrophage cell line and are used for the production of non-cross-linked pDNA-contained polyplexes. The obtained mannose modified polyplexes exhibit ca. 500-times greater transfection activity in IC-21 macrophages compared to the mannose-free polyplexes. This result greatly exceeds the targeting gene transfer effects previously described using mannose receptor targeted non-viral gene delivery systems. These results suggest that Man-PEG-b-pAsp(DET)/pDNA polyplex is a potential vector for immune cells-based gene therapy.

DNA nuclear targeting sequences for enhanced non-viral gene transfer: An in vitro and in vivo study

An important bottleneck for non-viral gene transfer commonly relates to translocation of nucleic acids into the nuclear compartment of target cells. So-called 3NFs are optimized short nucleotide sequences able to interact with the transcription factor nuclear factor κB (NF-κB), which can enhance the nuclear import of plasmid DNA (pDNA) carrying such motifs. In this work, we first designed a consistent set of six pDNAs featuring a common backbone and only varying in their 3NF sequences. These constructions were then transfected under various experimental settings. In vitro, cationic polymer-assisted pDNA delivery in five human-derived cell lines showed the potential advantage of 3NF carrying pDNA in diverse cellular contexts. In vivo, naked pDNAs were hydrodynamically delivered to muscle hindlimbs in healthy mice; this direct accurate comparative (in the absence of any gene carrier) revealed modest but consistent trends in favor of the pDNAs equipped with 3NF. In summary, the results reported emphasize the implications of various parameters on NF-κB-mediated pDNA nuclear import; under specific conditions, 3NF can provide modest to substantial advantages for pDNA gene transfer, in vitro as well as in vivo. This study thus further underscores the potential of optimized nuclear import for more efficient non-viral gene transfer applications.

Pluronic-based nanovehicles: Recent advances in anticancer therapeutic applications

Pluronics are a class of amphiphilic tri-block copolymers with wide pharmaceutical applicability. In the past decades, the ability to form biocompatible nanosized micelles was exploited to formulate stable drug nanovehicles with potential use in antitumor therapy. Due to the great potential for tuning physical and structural properties of Pluronic unimers, a panoply of drug or polynucleotide-loaded micelles was prepared and tested for their antitumoral activity. The attractive inherent antitumor properties of Pluronic polymers in combination with cell targeting and stimuli-responsive ligands greatly improved antitumoral therapeutic effects of tested drugs. In spite of that, the extraordinary complexity of biological challenges in the delivery of micellar drug payload makes their therapeutic potential still not exploited to the fullest. In this review paper we attempt to present the latest developments in the field of Pluronic based nanovehicles and their application in anticancer therapy with an overview of the chemistry involved in the preparation of these nanovehicles.

Gene transfer to skeletal muscle using hydrodynamic limb vein injection: current applications, hurdles and possible optimizations

Hydrodynamic limb vein injection is an in vivo locoregional gene delivery method. It consists of administrating a large volume of solution containing nucleic acid constructs in a limb with both blood inflow and outflow temporarily blocked using a tourniquet. The fast, high pressure delivery allows the musculature of the whole limb to be reached. The skeletal muscle is a tissue of choice for a variety of gene transfer applications, including gene therapy for Duchenne muscular dystrophy or other myopathies, as well as for the production of antibodies or other proteins with broad therapeutic effects. Hydrodynamic limb vein delivery has been evaluated with success in a large range of animal models. It has also proven to be safe and well-tolerated in muscular dystrophy patients, thus supporting its translation to the clinic. However, some possible limitations may occur at different steps of the delivery process. Here, we have highlighted the interests, bottlenecks and potential improvements that could further optimize non-viral gene transfer following hydrodynamic limb vein injection.

Targeted Delivery of siRNA Lipoplexes to Cancer Cells Using Macrophage Transient Horizontal Gene Transfer

Delivery of nucleic acids into solid tumor environments remains a pressing challenge. This study examines the ability of macrophages to horizontally transfer small interfering RNA (siRNA) lipoplexes to cancer cells. Macrophages are a natural candidate for a drug carrier because of their ability to accumulate at high densities into many cancer types, including, breast, prostate, brain, and colon cancer. Here, it is demonstrated that macrophages can horizontally transfer siRNA to cancer cells during in vitro coculture. The amount of transfer can be dosed depending on the amount of siRNA loaded and total number of macrophages delivered. Macrophages loaded with calcium integrin binding protein-1 (CIB1)-siRNA result in decreased tumorsphere growth and decreased mRNA expression of CIB1 and KI67 in MDA-MB-468 human breast cancer cells. Adoptive transfer of macrophages transfected with CIB1-siRNA localizes to the orthotopic MDA-MB-468 tumor. Furthermore, it is reported that macrophage activation can modulate this transfer process as well as intracellular trafficking protein Rab27a. As macrophages are heavily involved in tumor progression, understanding how to use macrophages for drug delivery can substantially benefit the treatment of tumors.

pH responsive delivery of lumefantrine with calcium phosphate nanoparticles loaded lipidic cubosomes for the site specific treatment of lung cancer

The present work aim to develop pH responsive nanosystem comprising lumefantrine with calcium phosphate nanoparticles loaded lipidic cubosomes for the effective treatment of lung cancer. FTIR results showed that, compatibility nature of selected excipients for the synthesis of LF-CaP-Cs. The XRD results showed developed LF-CaP-Cs were non crystalline in nature. The selected developed LF-CaP-Cs were in cubic phase with average particle size of 259.4 ± 19 nm with a charge of -2.28 ± 0.7 mV. The encapsulation efficiency for LF within LF-CaP-Cs was about 78.76 ± 0.5%. RP-HPLC analysis showed that LF release rate gets significantly enhanced with higher peak area at pH 4.0 compared to pH 5.0/pH 7.4. The in-vitro release of LF-CaP-Cs showed that LF release gets significantly increased at pH 4.0 (84.04 ± 0.4%) compared to pH 7.4 (48.32 ± 1.6%) at 12 h. Further, CAM assay showed the superior anti-angiogenesis potential of developed LF-CaP-Cs compared to LF-Cs/blank Cs. The cytotoxicity effect of LF-CaP-Cs (28 ± 1.8 μg/mL) was significantly higher than that of free LF (40 ± 0.9 μg/mL). The results of cellular uptake study proved the localization of LF at cellular level and AO/EB staining results revealed that the A549 cell undergoes apoptosis in A549 cells.

Food contact materials and gut health: Implications for toxicity assessment and relevance of high molecular weight migrants

Gut health is determined by an intact epithelial barrier and balanced gut microbiota, both involved in the regulation of immune responses in the gut. Disruption of this system contributes to the etiology of various non-communicable diseases, including intestinal, metabolic, and autoimmune disorders. Studies suggest that some direct food additives, but also some food contaminants, such as pesticide residues and substances migrating from food contact materials (FCMs), may adversely affect the gut barrier or gut microbiota. Here, we focus on gut-related effects of FCM-relevant substances (e.g. surfactants, N-ring containing substances, nanoparticles, and antimicrobials) and show that gut health is an underappreciated target in the toxicity assessment of FCMs. Understanding FCMs' impact on gut health requires more attention to ensure safety and prevent gut-related chronic diseases. Our review further points to the existence of large population subgroups with an increased intestinal permeability; this may lead to higher uptake of compounds of not only low (<1000 Da) but also high (>1000 Da) molecular weight. We discuss the potential toxicological relevance of high molecular weight compounds in the gut and suggest that the scientific justification for the application of a molecular weight-based cut-off in risk assessment of FCMs should be reevaluated.

Recent progress in drug delivery of pluronic P123: pharmaceutical perspectives

This review focuses on recent investigations that used Pluronic P123 (P123) as pharmaceutical ingredients in vesicle, micelle, mixed micelle, in situ gel, tablet and emulsion. The main results from these studies show that P123 can significantly increase the stability of incorporated hydrophobic drugs with enhanced in vitro cytotoxicity and cellular uptake of anticancer drugs. Moreover, modified forms of P123 with RGD, folate or other targeted marker have shown its therapeutic potentials in various types of tumors and cancers. Furthermore, modified forms of P123 alone and/or mixed with other copolymers have less toxic effects and more tumor-specific delivery of anticancer drugs. They are promising materials as a nanoplatform for the drug delivery. Finally, the future perspectives of the field are briefly discussed.

Data on macrophage mediated muscle transfection upon delivery of naked plasmid DNA with block copolymers

The data contains 14 figures supporting the research article “Horizontal gene transfer from macrophages to ischemic muscles upon delivery of naked DNA with Pluronic block copolymers” [1]. The data explains the surgical procedure and histological characterization of Murine Hind Limb Ischemia. The data also shows the kinetics of luciferase gene expression, spread of GFP expression through muscle and the colocalization of GFP with cellular markers in ischemic muscles injected with pDNA alone or pDNA/Pluronic. Finally the data shows the effect of Pluronic Block Copolymer to enhance total gene expression (cmv-promoter driven luciferase gene) in coculture of DNA transfected MØs with muscle cells.

Factors influencing the transfection efficiency and cellular uptake mechanisms of Pluronic P123-modified polypropyleneimine/pDNA polyplexes in multidrug resistant breast cancer cells

Generally, the major obstacles for efficient gene delivery are cellular internalization and endosomal escape of nucleic acid such as plasmid DNA (pDNA) or small interfering RNA (siRNA). We previously developed Pluronic P123 modified polypropyleneimine (PPI)/pDNA (P123-PPI/pDNA) polyplexes as a gene delivery system. The results showed that P123-PPI/pDNA polyplexes revealed higher transfection efficiency than PPI/pDNA polyplexes in multidrug resistant breast cancer cells. As a continued effort, the present investigation on the factors influencing the transfection efficiency, cellular uptake mechanisms, and intracellular fate of P123-PPI/pDNA polyplexes is reported. The presence of P123 was the main factor influencing the transfection efficiency of P123-PPI/pDNA polyplexes in MCF-7/ADR cells, but other parameters, such as N/P ratio, FBS concentration, incubation time and temperature were important as well. The endocytic inhibitors against clathrin-mediated endocytosis (CME), caveolae-mediated endocytosis (CvME), and macropinocytosis were involved in the internalization to investigate their effects on the cellular uptake and transfection efficiency of P123-PPI/pDNA polyplexes in vitro. The data showed that the internalization of P123-PPI/pDNA polyplexes was obtained from both CME and CvME. Colocalization experiments with TRITC-transferrin (CME indicator), Alexa Fluor 555-CTB (CvME indicator), monoclonal anti-α-tubulin (microtubule indicator), and LysoTracker Green (Endosome/lysosome indicator) were carried out to confirm the internalization routes. The results showed that both CME and CvME played vital roles in the effective transfection of P123-PPI/pDNA polyplexes. Endosome/lysosome system and skeleton, including actin filament and microtubule, were necessary for the transportation after internalization.

Horizontal gene transfer from macrophages to ischemic muscles upon delivery of naked DNA with Pluronic block copolymers

Intramuscular administration of plasmid DNA (pDNA) with non-ionic Pluronic block copolymers increases gene expression in injected muscles and lymphoid organs. We studied the role of immune cells in muscle transfection upon inflammation. Local inflammation in murine hind limb ischemia model (MHLIM) drastically increased DNA, RNA and expressed protein levels in ischemic muscles injected with pDNA/Pluronic. The systemic inflammation (MHLIM or peritonitis) also increased expression of pDNA/Pluronic in the muscles. When pDNA/Pluronic was injected in ischemic muscles the reporter gene, Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP) co-localized with desmin(+) muscle fibers and CD11b(+) macrophages (MØs), suggesting transfection of MØs along with the muscle cells. P85 enhanced (∼ 4 orders) transfection of MØs with pDNA in vitro. Moreover, adoptively transferred MØs were shown to pass the transgene to inflamed muscle cells in MHLIM. Using a co-culture of myotubes (MTs) and transfected MØs expressing a reporter gene under constitutive (cmv-luciferase) or muscle specific (desmin-luciferase) promoter we demonstrated that P85 enhances horizontal gene transfer from MØ to MTs. Therefore, MØs can play an important role in muscle transfection with pDNA/Pluronic during inflammation, with both inflammation and Pluronic contributing to the increased gene expression. pDNA/Pluronic has potential for therapeutic gene delivery in muscle pathologies that involve inflammation.

A Low Protein Binding Cationic Poly(2-oxazoline) as Non-Viral Vector

Developing safe and efficient non-viral gene delivery systems remains a major challenge. We present a new cationic poly(2-oxazoline) (CPOx) block copolymer for gene therapy that was synthesized by sequential polymerization of non-ionic 2-methyl-2-oxazoline and a new 2-oxazoline monomer, 2-(N-methyl, N-Boc-amino)-methyl-2-oxazoline, followed by deprotection of the pendant secondary amine groups. Upon mixing with plasmid DNA (pDNA), CPOx forms small (diameter ≈80 nm) and narrowly dispersed polyplexes (PDI <0.2), which are stable upon dilution in saline and against thermal challenge. These polyplexes exhibited low plasma protein binding and very low cytotoxicity in vitro compared to the polyplexes of pDNA and poly(ethylene glycol)-b-poly(L-lysine) (PEG-b-PLL). CPOx/pDNA polyplexes at N/P = 5 bound considerably less plasma protein compared to polyplexes of PEG-b-PLL at the same N/P ratio. This is a unique aspect of the developed polyplexes emphasizing their potential for systemic delivery in vivo. The transfection efficiency of the polyplexes in B16 murine melanoma cells was low after 4 h, but increased significantly for 10 h exposure time, indicative of slow internalization of polyplexes. Addition of Pluronic P85 boosted the transfection using CPOx/pDNA polyplexes considerably. The low protein binding of CPOx/pDNA polyplexes is particularly interesting for the future development of targeted gene delivery.

SERCA2a gene therapy can improve symptomatic heart failure in δ-sarcoglycan-deficient animals

The loss of dystrophin or its associated proteins results in the development of muscle wasting frequently associated with cardiomyopathy. Contractile cardiac tissue is injured and replaced by fibrous tissue or fatty infiltrates, leading to a progressive decrease of the contractile force and finally to end-stage heart failure. At the time symptoms appear, restoration of a functional allele of the causative gene might not be sufficient to prevent disease progression. Alterations in Ca(2+) transport and intracellular calcium levels have been implicated in many types of pathological processes, especially in heart disease. On the basis of a gene transfer strategy, we analyzed the therapeutic efficacy of primary gene correction in a δ-sarcoglycan (δ-SG)-deficient animal model versus gene transfer of the Ca(2+) pump hSERCA2a (human sarco-endoplasmic reticulum calcium ATPase 2a), at a symptomatic stage of heart disease. Our results strongly suggest that restoration of δ-SG at this stage of disease will not lead to improved clinical outcome. However, restoration of proper Ca(2+) handling by means of amplifying SERCA2a expression in the myocardium can lead to functional improvement. Abnormalities in Ca(2+) handling play an important role in disease progression toward heart failure, and increased SERCA2a levels appear to significantly improve cardiac contraction and relaxation. Beneficial effects persist at least over a period of 6 months, and the evolution of cardiac functional parameters paralleled those of normal controls. Furthermore, we demonstrate that a plasmid formulation based on amphiphilic block copolymers can provide a safe and efficient platform for myocardial gene therapies. The use of synthetic formulations for myocardial gene transfer might thus overcome one of the major hurdles linked to viral vectors, that is, repeat administrations.

Pluronic L64-mediated stable HIF-1α expression in muscle for therapeutic angiogenesis in mouse hindlimb ischemia

Intramuscular injection of plasmid DNA (pDNA) to express a therapeutic protein is a promising method for the treatment of many diseases. However, the therapeutic applications are usually hindered by gene delivery efficiency and expression level. In this study, critical factors in a pDNA-based gene therapy system, such as gene delivery materials, a therapeutic gene, and its regulatory elements, were optimized to establish an integrated system for the treatment of mouse hindlimb ischemia. The results showed that Pluronic^® L64 (L64) was an efficient and safe material for gene delivery into mouse skeletal muscle. It also showed intrinsic ability to promote in vivo angiogenesis in a concentration-dependent manner, which might be through the activation of nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cell (NF-κB)-regulated angiogenic factors. The combination of 0.1% L64 with a hybrid gene promoter (pSC) increased the gene expression level, elongated the gene expression duration, and enhanced the number of transfected muscle fibers. In mice ischemic limbs, a gene medicine (pSC-HIF1α^tri/L64) composed of L64 and pSC-based expression plasmid encoding hypoxia-inducible factor 1-alpha triple mutant (HIF-1α^tri), improved the expression of stable HIF-1α, and in turn, the expression of multiple angiogenic factors. As a result, the ischemic limbs showed accelerated function recovery, reduced foot necrosis, faster blood reperfusion, and higher capillary density. These results indicated that the pSC-HIF1α^tri/L64 combination presented a potential and convenient venue for the treatment of peripheral vascular diseases, especially critical limb ischemia.

Improved oral bioavailability of breviscapine via a Pluronic P85-modified liposomal delivery system

Objectives

Breviscapine, a hydrophobic drug used for treating cardiovascular disease, was encapsulated in liposomes to improve its pharmaceutical characteristics. This study describes a novel liposome composition approach to specifically inhibit the P-glycoprotein efflux system.

Methods

Breviscapine-loaded Pluronic P85-coated liposomes were prepared by the thin film hydration technique. The particle size, zeta potential and encapsulation efficiency of the formulations were characterized. In-vitro drug release and permeability of Caco-2 cells were investigated. In-vitro characteristics and pharmacokinetics of the liposomes were evaluated in rat studies.

Key findings

The Pluronic P85-modified liposomes dispersed individually and had an approximate diameter of 118.8 ± 4.9 nm and a zeta potential of −35.4 ± 1.5 mV. Encapsulation efficiency was more than 90%. The use of the P85-coated liposomes resulted in significantly (P &lt; 0.05) increased absorption of breviscapine in Caco-2 cells and in 5.6-fold enhancement in its oral bioavailability in rats.

Conclusion

The P85-modified liposomes for the oral delivery of breviscapine were prepared using l-α-phosphatidylcholine (soy-hydrogenated) and cholesterol with a narrow size distribution. This method seems to effectively enhance the bioavailability of breviscapine in rats.

Bicontinuous cubic liquid crystalline nanoparticles for oral delivery of Doxorubicin: implications on bioavailability, therapeutic efficacy, and cardiotoxicity

PURPOSE

The present study explores the potential of bicontinous cubic liquid crystalline nanoparticles (LCNPs) for improving therapeutic potential of doxorubicin.

METHODS

Phytantriol based Dox-LCNPs were prepared using hydrotrope method, optimized for various formulation components, process variables and lyophilized. Structural elucidation of the reconstituted formulation was performed using HR-TEM and SAXS analysis. The developed formulation was subjected to exhaustive cell culture experiments for delivery potential (Caco-2 cells) and efficacy (MCF-7 cells). Finally, in vivo pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamic studies in DMBA induced breast cancer model and cardiotoxicity were also evaluated.

RESULTS

The reconstituted formulation exhibited Pn3m type cubic structure, evident by SAXS and posed stability in simulated gastrointestinal fluids and at accelerated stability conditions for 6 months. Dox-LCNPs revealed significantly higher cell cytotoxicity (16.23-fold) against MCF-7 cell lines as compared to free drug owing to its preferential localization in the vicinity of nucleus. Furthermore, Caco-2 cell experiments revealed formation of reversible "virtual pathways" in the cell membrane for Dox-LCNPs and hence posed significantly higher relative oral bioavailability (17.74-fold). Subsequently, Single dose of Dox-LCNPs (per oral) led to significant reduction in % tumor burden (~42%) as compared that of ~31% observed in case of Adriamycin® (i.v.) when evaluated in DMBA induced breast cancer model. Moreover, Dox induced cardiotoxicity was also found to be significantly lower in case of Dox-LCNPs as compared to clinical formulations (Adriamycin® and Lipodox®).

CONCLUSION

Incorporation of Dox in the novel LCNPs demonstrated improved antitumor efficacy and safety profile and can be a viable option for oral chemotherapy.

Pluronic P85 enhances the efficacy of outer membrane vesicles as a subunit vaccine against Brucella melitensis challenge in mice

Brucellosis is the most common zoonotic disease worldwide, and there is no vaccine for human use. Brucella melitensis Rev1, a live attenuated strain, is the commercial vaccine for small ruminants to prevent B. melitensis infections but has been associated with abortions in animals. Moreover, strain Rev1 is known to cause disease in humans and cannot be used for human vaccination. Outer membrane vesicles (OMVs) obtained from B. melitensis have been shown to provide protection similar to strain Rev1 in mice against B. melitensis challenge. In the present work, we tested the efficacy of Pluronic P85 as an adjuvant to enhance the efficacy of Brucella OMVs as a vaccine. P85 enhanced the in vitro secretion of TNF-α by macrophages induced with OMVs and P85. Further, P85 enhanced the protection provided by OMVs against B. melitensis challenge. This enhanced protection was associated with higher total IgG antibody production but not increased IFN-γ or IL-4 cytokine levels. Moreover, P85 alone provided significantly better clearance of B. melitensis compared to saline-vaccinated mice. Further studies are warranted to find the mechanism of action of P85 that provides nonspecific protection and enhances the efficacy of OMVs as a vaccine against B. melitensis.

Poloxamer 188 protects neurons against ischemia/reperfusion injury through preserving integrity of cell membranes and blood brain barrier

Poloxamer 188 (P188), a multiblock copolymer surfactant, has been shown to protect against ischemic tissue injury of cardiac muscle, testes and skeletal muscle, but the mechanisms have not been fully understood. In this study, we explored whether P188 had a protective effect against cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury and its underlying mechanisms. The in vivo results showed that P188 significantly reduced the infarct volume, ameliorated the brain edema and neurological symptoms 24 h after ischemia/reperfusion. In the long-term outcome study, P188 markedly alleviated brain atrophy and motor impairments and increased survival rate in 3 weeks of post stroke period. Additionally, P188 protected cultured hippucampal HT22 cells against oxygen-glucose deprivation and reoxygenation (OGD/R) injury. The ability in membrane sealing was assessed with two fluorescent membrane-impermeant dyes. The results showed that P188 treatment significantly reduced the PI-positive cells following ischemia/reperfusion injury and repaired the HT22 cell membrane rupture induced by Triton X-100. In addition, P188 inhibited ischemia/reperfusion-induced activation of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-9 and leakage of Evans blue. Therefore, the present study concludes that P188 can protect against cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury, and the protection involves multi-mechanisms in addition to the membrane resealing.

A nonviral pHEMA+chitosan nanosphere-mediated high-efficiency gene delivery system

The transport of DNA into eukaryotic cells is minimal because of the cell membrane barrier, and this limits the application of DNA vaccines, gene silencing, and gene therapy. Several available transfection reagents and techniques have been used to circumvent this problem. Alternatively, nonviral nanoscale vectors have been shown to bypass the eukaryotic cell membrane. In the present work, we developed a unique nanomaterial, pHEMA+chitosan nanospheres (PCNSs), which consisted of poly(2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate) nanospheres surrounded by a chitosan cationic shell, and we used this for encapsulation of a respiratory syncytial virus (RSV)-F gene construct (a model for a DNA vaccine). The new nanomaterial was capable of transfecting various eukaryotic cell lines without the use of a commercial transfection reagent. Using transmission electron microscopy, (TEM), fluorescence activated cell sorting (FACS), and immunofluorescence, we clearly demonstrated that the positively charged PCNSs were able to bind to the negatively charged cell membrane and were taken up by endocytosis, in Cos-7 cells. Using quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR), we also evaluated the efficiency of transfection achieved with PCNSs and without the use of a liposomal-based transfection mediator, in Cos-7, HEp-2, and Vero cells. To assess the transfection efficiency of the PCNSs in vivo, these novel nanomaterials containing RSV-F gene were injected intramuscularly into BALB/c mice, resulting in high copy number of the transgene. In this study, we report, for the first time, the application of the PCNSs as a nanovehicle for gene delivery in vitro and in vivo.

Poly(alkylene oxide) copolymers for nucleic acid delivery

The advancement of gene-based therapeutics to the clinic is limited by the ability to deliver physiologically relevant doses of nucleic acids to target tissues safely and effectively. Over the last couple of decades, researchers have successfully employed polymer and lipid based nanoassemblies to deliver nucleic acids for the treatment of a variety of diseases. Results of phase I/II clinical studies to evaluate the efficacy and biosafety of these gene delivery vehicles have been encouraging, which has promoted the design of more efficient and biocompatible systems. Research has focused on designing carriers to achieve biocompatibility, stability in the circulatory system, biodistribution to target the disease site, and intracellular delivery, all of which enhance the resulting therapeutic effect. The family of poly(alkylene oxide) (PAO) polymers includes random, block, and branched structures, among which the ABA type triblocks copolymers of ethylene oxide (EO) and propylene oxide (PO) (commercially known as Pluronic) have received the greatest consideration. In this Account, we highlight examples of polycation-PAO conjugates, liposome-PAO formulations, and PAO micelles for nucleic acid delivery. Among the various polymer design considerations, which include molecular weight of polymer, molecular weight of blocks, and length of blocks, the overall hydrophobic-lipophilic balance (HLB) is a critical parameter in defining the behavior of the polymer conjugates for gene delivery. We discuss the effects of varying this parameter in the context of improving gene delivery processes, such as serum stability and association with cell membranes. Other innovative macromolecular modifications discussed in this category include our work to enhance the serum stability and efficiency of lipoplexes using PAO graft copolymers, the development of a PAO gel-based carrier for sustained and stimuli responsive delivery, and the development of biodegradable PAO-based amphiphilic block copolymers.

Cisplatin-loaded core cross-linked micelles: comparative pharmacokinetics, antitumor activity, and toxicity in mice

Polymer micelles with cross-linked ionic cores are shown here to improve the therapeutic performance of the platinum-containing anticancer compound cisplatin. Biodistribution, antitumor efficacy, and toxicity of cisplatin-loaded core cross-linked micelles of poly(ethylene glycol)-b-poly(methacrylic acid) were evaluated in a mouse ovarian cancer xenograft model. Cisplatin-loaded micelles demonstrated prolonged blood circulation, increased tumor accumulation, and reduced renal exposure. Improved antitumor response relative to free drug was seen in a mouse model. Toxicity studies with cisplatin-loaded micelles indicate a significantly improved safety profile and lack of renal abnormalities typical of free cisplatin treatment. Overall, the study supports the fundamental possibility of improving the potential of platinum therapy using polymer micelle-based drug delivery.

Solution behavior of normal and reverse triblock copolymers (pluronic L44 and 10R5) individually and in binary mixture

Solution properties of pluronics L44 or L [(PEO)(10)(PPO)(23)(PEO)(10)] and 10R5 or R [(PPO)(8)(PEO)(22)(PPO)(8)] were studied individually as well in their binary mixtures in aqueous medium. The critical micelle concentration (CMC), critical micelle temperature, and cloud point (CP) were determined. Ideal and nonideal behaviors of their mixtures in the formation of CMC and CP were observed; the energetics of the studied processes were determined. Spectrophotometry, isothermal titration calorimetry and dynamic light scattering (DLS) methods were used for evaluations. Morphologies of the dispersed L, R, and their mixtures along with their polydispersities were determined from DLS measurements. Atomic force microscopy was also employed. The interfacial properties of L and R were investigated forming Langmuir monolayers in a surface balance. The surface pressures (π) generated by the compounds were moderate, the area per molecule was higher for R than L. R has shown antibacterial activity against both gram positive and gram negative bacteria whereas L was inactive in this respect.

P85, Optison microbubbles and ultrasound cooperate in mediating plasmid DNA transfection in mouse skeletal muscles in vivo

Pluronic block copolymers, a kind of non-ionic surfactant, also known as poloxamers, and ultrasound-targeted microbubble destruction have been respectively investigated as vectors for gene delivery in vitro and in vivo. However, they are limited for clinical application due to the relatively low transfer efficiency of each individual vector. In the present study, we explored if the combination of P85, a pluronic block copolymer, Optison, a microbubble contrast agent and ultrasound enhances the transfection of plasmid DNA in vivo using mouse skeletal muscle models. Plasmid encoding green fluorescent protein (GFP) was respectively conjugated with 0.05%P85, 10%Optison, or 0.05%P85 plus 10%Optison, and injected into mouse tibialis anterior (TA) muscles with or without ultrasound irradiation (1 MHz, 1 W/cm(2), 2 min and 20% duty cycle). Mice were sacrificed 1 week after injection. The TA muscles were collected and cryo-sectioned into a series of 7 μm slices. To assess the efficiency of plasmid DNA transfection, tissue sections were counterstained with DAPI and scored by counting the number of GFP-positive fibers. Meanwhile the area of damaged muscles was measured based on the tissues stained with hematoxylin and eosin. Both P85 and Optison significantly enhanced the delivery of plasmid DNA in mouse TA skeletal muscles (P<0.01 and P<0.05 respectively, compared to saline control). In combination with Ultrasound irradiation, P85 (P<0.01, compared to P85 alone) but not Optison (P>0.05, compared to Optison alone) exerted a more pronounced effect on the transfection efficiency. Furthermore P85-induced gene delivery was higher than that by Optison regardless of the presence of ultrasound (P<0.01). The highest transfection efficiency was observed when P85, Optison and ultrasound irradiation were administrated together (P<0.01, compared to any other treatment in this study). The area of damaged muscles was enlarged by ultrasound irradiation in the presence of Optison microbubbles (P<0.01, compared to those groups without ultrasound irradiation). These results suggest that P85, microbubbles and ultrasound irradiation synergistically enhance plasmid DNA delivery in mouse skeletal muscles in vivo.

Protection of the liver against CCl4-induced injury by intramuscular electrotransfer of a kallistatin-encoding plasmid

AIM: To investigate the effect of transgenic expression of kallistatin (Kal) on carbon tetrachloride (CCl₄)-induced liver injury by intramuscular (im) electrotransfer of a Kal-encoding plasmid formulated with poly-L-glutamate (PLG).

METHODS: The pKal plasmid encoding Kal gene was formulated with PLG and electrotransferred into mice skeletal muscle before the administration of CCl₄. The expression level of Kal was measured. The serum biomarker levels of alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), malonyldialdehyde (MDA), and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α were monitored. The extent of CCl₄-induced liver injury was analyzed histopathologically.

RESULTS: The transgene of Kal was sufficiently expressed after an im injection of plasmid formulated with PLG followed by electroporation. In the Kal gene-transferred mice, protection against CCl₄-induced liver injury was reflected by significantly decreased serum ALT, AST, MDA and TNF-α levels compared to those in control mice (P < 0.01 to 0.05 in a dose-dependent manner). Histological observations also revealed that hepatocyte necrosis, hemorrhage, vacuolar change and hydropic degeneration were apparent in mice after CCl₄ administration. In contrast, the damage was markedly attenuated in the Kal gene-transferred mice. The expression of hepatic fibrogenesis marker transforming growth factor-β1 was also reduced in the pKal transferred mice.

CONCLUSION: Intramuscular electrotransfer of plasmid pKal which was formulated with PLG significantly alleviated the CCl₄-induced oxidative stress and inflammatory response, and reduced the liver damage in a mouse model.

Endocytosis of nanomedicines

Novel nanomaterials are being developed to improve diagnosis and therapy of diseases through effective delivery of drugs, biopharmaceutical molecules and imaging agents to target cells in disease sites. Such diagnostic and therapeutic nanomaterials, also termed "nanomedicines", often require site-specific cellular entry to deliver their payload to sub-cellular locations hidden beneath cell membranes. Nanomedicines can employ multiple pathways for cellular entry, which are currently insufficiently understood. This review, first, classifies various mechanisms of endocytosis available to nanomedicines including phagocytosis and pinocytosis through clathrin-dependent and clathrin-independent pathways. Second, it describes the current experimental tools to study endocytosis of nanomedicines. Third, it provides specific examples from recent literature and our own work on endocytosis of nanomedicines. Finally, these examples are used to ascertain 1) the role of particle size, shape, material composition, surface chemistry and/or charge for utilization of a selected pathway(s); 2) the effect of cell type on the processing of nanomedicines; and 3) the effect of nanomaterial-cell interactions on the processes of endocytosis, the fate of the nanomedicines and the resulting cellular responses. This review will be useful to a diverse audience of students and scientists who are interested in understanding endocytosis of nanomedicines.

Effects of pluronic and doxorubicin on drug uptake, cellular metabolism, apoptosis and tumor inhibition in animal models of MDR cancers

Cancer chemotherapy is believed to be impeded by multidrug resistance (MDR). Pluronic (triblock copolymers of poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO) and poly(propylene oxide) (PPO), PEO-b-PPO-b-PEO) were previously shown to sensitize MDR tumors to antineoplastic agents. This study uses animal models of Lewis lung carcinoma (3LL-M27) and T-lymphocytic leukemia (P388/ADR and P388) derived solid tumors to delineate mechanisms of sensitization of MDR tumors by Pluronic P85 (P85) in vivo. First, non-invasive single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) and tumor tissue radioactivity sampling demonstrate that intravenous co-administration of P85 with a Pgp substrate, 99Tc-sestamibi, greatly increases the tumor uptake of this substrate in the MDR tumors. Second, 31P magnetic resonance spectroscopy (31P-MRS) in live animals and tumor tissue sampling for ATP suggest that P85 and doxorubicin (Dox) formulations induce pronounced ATP depletion in MDR tumors. Third, these formulations are shown to increase tumor apoptosis in vivo by terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labeling (TUNEL) assay and reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) for caspases 8 and 9. Altogether, formulation of Dox with P85 results in increased inhibition of the growth solid tumors in mice and represents novel and promising strategy for therapy of drug resistant cancers.

The utilization of pathogen-like cellular trafficking by single chain block copolymer

Amphiphilic triblock copolymer, poly(ethylene oxide)-b-poly(propylene oxide)-b-poly(ethylene oxide), Pluronic P85, is unexpectedly shown to utilize sophisticated cellular trafficking mechanisms and enter brain microvessel endothelial cells and primary neurons that are poorly penetrable. Though caveolae serve as a primary entry site for the copolymer single chains, in cells devoid of caveolae, the copolymer can still exploit caveolae- and clathrin-independent routes. This parallels the copolymer's trafficking itinerary with that of biological pathogens. The similarity is reinforced since both bypass early endosomes/lysosomes and transport to the endoplasmic reticulum. The copolymer finally reaches the mitochondrion that serves as its final destination. Notably, it also succeeds to gain entry in brain microvessel endothelial cells through caveolae and in primary neurons through caveolae- and clathrin-independent pathway. In neurons the copolymer accumulates in the cell body followed by anterograde trafficking towards the axons/dendrites. Overall, dissecting the trafficking of a synthetic polymer in multiple cell types triggers development of novel delivery systems that can selectively target intracellular compartments and provide entry in cells currently considered impenetrable.

Facile fabrication of diblock methoxy poly(ethylene glycol)-poly(tetramethylene carbonate) and its self-assembled micelles as drug carriers

AB type diblock methoxy poly(ethylene glycol)-b-poly(tetramethylene carbonate) (mPEG-PTeMC) copolymers were designed for the first time and used as carriers for the sustained release of the hydrophobic drug ibuprofen. In this paper, we developed a facile ring-opening polymerization (ROP) method to prepare mPEG-PTeMC copolymers under the catalysis of Novozym-435 lipase. Attractively, the polymerization has been successfully performed at 30 degrees C, close to room temperature. The data show that the copolymer compositions agree well with the feed ratio of TeMC to mPEG, indicating the controllable feature of the polymerization. The copolymer structures were characterized by (1)H NMR, IR, SEC, and DSC measurements. mPEG-PTeMC exhibits no apparent in vitro cytotoxicity toward human embryonic kidney transformed 293T cells. Those amphiphilic copolymers can readily self-assemble into nanosized micelles (about 150 nm) in aqueous solution. Their critical micelle concentrations are in the range of (1.6-9.3) x 10(-7) mol/L, determined by fluorescence spectroscopy. The micelles present high stability in PBS solution, with no obvious change in micelle diameters over 5 days. Ibuprofen can be loaded effectively in mPEG-PTeMC micelles, and its sustained release behavior is observed. Transmission electron microscopy shows that the well-dispersed spherical micelles are around 25 nm in diameter, while the diameter is 30 nm after loading ibuprofen. The release rate increases when the chain length of the PTeMC block decreases. These properties show that the micelles self-assembled from mPEG-PTeMC copolymers would have great potential as carriers for the effective encapsulation as well as sustained release of hydrophobic drugs.