Hyaluronic acid receptor-targetable imidazolized nanovectors for induction of gastric cancer cell death by RNA interference

Hyaluronic acid-functionalized lipoplexes and polyplexes as emerging nanocarriers for receptor-targeted cancer therapy

Cancer is an intricate disease that develops as a response to a combination of hereditary and environmental risk factors, which then result in a variety of changes to the genome. The cluster of differentiation (CD44) is a type of transmembrane glycoprotein that serves as a potential biomarker for cancer stem cells (CSC) and viable targets for therapeutic intervention in the context of cancer therapy. Hyaluronic acid (HA) is a linear polysaccharide that exhibits a notable affinity for the CD44 receptor. This characteristic renders it a promising candidate for therapeutic interventions aimed at selectively targeting CD44-positive cancer cells. Treating cancer via non-viral vector-based gene delivery has changed the notion of curing illness through the incorporation of therapeutic genes into the organism. The objective of this review is to provide an overview of various hyaluronic acid-modified lipoplexes and polyplexes as potential drug delivery methods for specific forms of cancer by effectively targeting CD44.

Cationic poly(amino acid) surface functionalized manganese nanoparticles for nitric oxide-based immunotherapy and magnetic resonance imaging

The low therapeutic efficacy of conventional cancer chemotherapy has been associated with an immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME). Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs), which display an M2-like phenotype, are abundant in many tumors and facilitate tumor growth and resistance to therapy. Here, we show that poly(L-arginine) (PLR), a cationic poly(amino acid) can induce the polarization of macrophages into the tumor-suppressive M1 phenotype, in vitro. Further, we demonstrate that hyaluronic acid (HA) and PLR-coated manganese dioxide (MnO₂) nanoparticles (hpMNPs) display efficient anti-cancer effects by upregulating nitric oxide (NO) production. Surface modification with biocompatible HA reduced the cytotoxicity of the cationic PLR. Additionally, manganese ions released from these nanoparticles by the high concentrations of glutathione (GSH) in the TME increased iNOS expression level in macrophages and enhanced the performance of T₁ weighted magnetic resonance imaging. Particularly, our results illustrate the therapeutic effects, such as growth inhibition and apoptosis of tumor cells, of hpMNP treated macrophages. Therefore, the newly designed multifunctional PLR-assisted MNPs may facilitate the polarization of M2 macrophages into the M1 phenotype, which can mediate NO-dependent anticancer immunotherapy.

Synthesis of self-assembled hyaluronan based nanoparticles and their applications in targeted imaging and therapy

Hyaluronan (HA) is a polysaccharide consisting of repeating disaccharides of N-acetyl-d-glucosamine and d-glucuronic acid. There are increasing interests in utilizing self-assembled HA nanoparticles (HA-NPs) for targeted imaging and therapy. The principal endogenous receptor of HA, cluster of differentiation 44 (CD44), is overexpressed on many types of tumor cells as well as inflammatory cells in human bodies. Active targeting from HA-CD44 mediated interaction and passive targeting due to the enhanced permeability retention (EPR) effect could lead to selective accumulation of HA-NPs at targeted disease sites. This review focuses on the synthesis strategies of self-assembled HA-NPs, as well as their applications in therapy and biomedical imaging.

Study and Preparation of Multifunctional Poly(L-Lysine)@Hyaluronic Acid Nanopolyplexes for the Effective Delivery of Tumor Suppressive MiR-34a into Triple-Negative Breast Cancer Cells

Non-viral gene delivery using exogenous microRNAs is a potential strategy for fighting cancers with poor prognosis and which lack specific therapies, such as triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC). Herein we report the synthesis of six nontoxic electrostatic polymeric nanocapsules (P1 to P6) for microRNA delivery in TNBC cells. 1H Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) spectroscopy and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) were used to characterize the nanopolyplexes, synthesized with Poly(L-Lysine) and hyaluronic acid (Ha). Studies on the activity of the ternary HA/PLI/miRNA-34 nanopolyplexes towards TNBC cell line MDA-MB-231 were conducted. The nanopolyplexes mediated intracellular restoration of tumor suppressor miR34a was evaluated by using Western blotting to quantify the expression level of the Bcl-2 protein. The results suggest that the P5, with a ratio PLI/Ha of 0.05, was the most promising for the delivery of miR-34a into TNBC cells; the P5 nanocapsules were able to reduce Bcl-2 expression at a protein level, and had an effect in the overall cell viability after 24 h treatment.

Dual-responsive doxorubicin-loaded nanomicelles for enhanced cancer therapy

BACKGROUND

The enhancement of tumor retention and cellular uptake of drugs are important factors in maximizing anticancer therapy and minimizing side effects of encapsulated drugs. Herein, a delivery nanoplatform, armed with a pH-triggered charge-reversal capability and self-amplifiable reactive oxygen species (ROS)-induced drug release, is constructed by encapsulating doxorubicin (DOX) in pH/ROS-responsive polymeric micelle.

RESULTS

The surface charge of this system was converted from negative to positive from pH 7.4 to pH 6.8, which facilitated the cellular uptake. In addition, methionine-based system was dissociated in a ROS-rich and acidic intracellular environment, resulting in the release of DOX and α-tocopheryl succinate (TOS). Then, the exposed TOS segments further induced the generation of ROS, leading to self-amplifiable disassembly of the micelles and drug release.

CONCLUSIONS

We confirms efficient DOX delivery into cancer cells, upregulation of tumoral ROS level and induction of the apoptotic capability in vitro. The system exhibits outstanding tumor inhibition capability in vivo, indicating that dual stimuli nano-system has great potential to function as an anticancer drug delivery platform.

Cationic Poly(Amino Acid) Vaccine Adjuvant for Promoting Both Cell-Mediated and Humoral Immunity Against Influenza Virus

Powerful adjuvants to augment vaccine efficacy with a less immunogenic vaccine system are in great demand. In this study, a novel squalene-based cationic poly(amino acid) adjuvant (CASq) that elicits both cellular (Th1) and humoral (Th2) immune responses is developed. CASq is demonstrated to promote cellular uptake of viral antigen and stimulate macrophages, leading to active production of interleukin-12. Furthermore, co-administration of inactivated pdm H1N1 vaccine with CASq significantly increases the generation of antigen-specific antibodies and T cell immune responses in mice, as well as resulting in complete prevention of disease symptoms and protection against lethal infection.

Antibacterial and aqueous dual-responsive sensing activities of monomeric complexes with uncoordinated imidazole sites

The butterfly-shaped monomeric complex is stable and slight soluble in water, which shows antibacterial and aqueous dual-responsive sensing activities.

Nanoengineered Peptide-Grafted Hyperbranched Polymers for Killing of Bacteria Monitored in Real Time via Intrinsic Aggregation-Induced Emission

Facing the global health crisis caused by drug-resistant bacteria, antimicrobial peptides and their analogues offer exciting solutions to this widespread problem. Without additionally introducing a fluorescent probe, novel nanoengineered peptide-grafted hyperbranched polymers (NPGHPs) are constructed for their combined outstanding antimicrobial activity and sensitive bacterial detection in real time. Hyperbranched polyamide amine (H-PAMAM) that exhibits aggregation-induced emission (AIE) effects is synthesized. Then, NPGHPs are prepared by ring-opening polymerization of α-amino acid N-carboxyanhydrides on the periphery of the H-PAMAM. The NPGHPs exhibit high-efficiency antibacterial properties against a wide spectrum of bacteria, especially against Gram-negative bacteria. On the basis of the AIE effect of NPGHPs, the interaction between NPGHPs and Escherichia coli is explored and the fluorescence intensity of NPGHPs is dependent on the number of E. coli present. Thus, a method for monitoring E. coli concentration is developed, and the detection limit is 1 × 10⁴ CFU mL^-1. Furthermore, NPGHPs are used as fluorescent probes to visualize antibacterial process via lighting-up bacteria. NPGHPs can penetrate the membrane of bacteria and cause cell rupture and apoptosis. In addition, the excellent selectivity of NPGHPs toward bacteria over mammalian cells makes them bright prospects for clinical applications.

Comparison of hyaluronic acid-based micelles and polyethylene glycol-based micelles on reversal of multidrug resistance and enhanced anticancer efficacy in vitro and in vivo

Polyethylene glycol (PEG)-based block copolymer micelles and hyaluronic acid (HA)-based grafted copolymer micelles have been widely investigated in chemotherapy. In this study, to evaluate the differences among HA-based grafted polymer micelles, PEG-based block polymer micelles and the mixed of these two micelles in enhancing antitumor effects and overcoming MDR, two amphiphilic vitamin E succinate (VES) derivatives, HA VES (HA-g-VES) and PEG 2000 VES (TPGS2k), were applied as nanocarriers to prepare HA-VES micelles (HA-PMs), TPGS2k micelles (TPGS2k-PMs) and the mixed micelles (HA/TPGS2k-PMs) for the co-delivery of doxorubicin (DOX) and curcumin (Cur). With the addition of TPGS2k, the particle size of HA/TPGS2k-PMs (153.37 ± 1.00 nm) was smaller than that of HA-PMs (223.83 ± 1.84) but significantly larger than that of TPGS2k-PMs (about 20 nm). The loading efficiency of HA/TPGS2k-PMs was 7.10%, which was lower than HA-PMs (8.31 ± 0.15%) but higher than TPGS2k-PMs (4.38 ± 0.24%). In vitro, HA/TPGS2k-PMs and TPGS2k-PMs exhibited higher cytotoxicity and reversal MDR effects than HA-PMs in MCF-7/Adr cells. However, HA/TPGS2k-PMs, HA-PMs and TPGS2k-PMs all significantly improved the tumor biodistribution, the antitumor effects and reduced the side effects of DOX in 4T1-tumor-bearing mice, but these three micelles displayed no differences in vivo. Therefore, EPR passive targeting effects caused by PEGylated micelles and CD44 active targeting effects caused by HA-based micelles have no significant variance in the delivery of antitumor drugs by i.v.

Targeted multifunctional redox-sensitive micelle co-delivery of DNA and doxorubicin for the treatment of breast cancer

Drug/gene co-delivery carriers are a promising strategy for cancer treatment. Thus, herein, T7-conjugated redox-sensitive amphiphilic polyethylene glycol-polyethyleneimine-poly(caprolactone)-SS-poly(caprolactone)-polyethyleneimine-polyethylene glycol (PEG-PEI-PCL-SS-PCL-PEG) (PPPT) is designed to realize the co-delivery of pORF-hTRAIL and DOX efficiently into tumor cells. PPPT is synthesized via the ring opening polymerization (ROP) of ε-caprolactone followed by Michael addition polymerization and atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP) of the maleic imide group of MAL-PEG-NHS. The PPPT micelles present a spherical or ellipsoidal geometry with a mean diameter of approximately 100-120 nm. Meanwhile, they also exhibit a redox-responsive drug release profile in vitro. The blood compatibility and complement activation tests reveal that the PPPT micelles do not induce blood hemolysis, blood clotting, or complement activation. The T7-modified co-delivery system shows a higher cellular uptake efficiency than the unmodified co-delivery system in human breast cancer MCF-7 cells and is accumulated in tumor more efficiently in vivo. These results suggest that the T7-targeted codelivery system of DOX and pORF-hTRAIL is a combined delivery platform that can significantly improve the treatment of breast cancer.

Irinotecan and 5-fluorouracil-co-loaded, hyaluronic acid-modified layer-by-layer nanoparticles for targeted gastric carcinoma therapy

For targeted gastric carcinoma therapy, hyaluronic acid (HA)-modified layer-by-layer nanoparticles (NPs) are applied for improving anticancer treatment efficacy and reducing toxicity and side effects. The aim of this study was to develop HA-modified NPs for the co-loading of irinotecan (IRN) and 5-fluorouracil (5-FU). A novel polymer–chitosan (CH)–HA hybrid formulation (HA–CH–IRN/5-FU NPs) consisting of poly(d,l-lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) and IRN as the core, CH and 5-FU as a shell on the core and HA as the outmost layer was prepared. Its morphology, average size, zeta potential and drug encapsulation ability were evaluated. Human gastric carcinoma cells (MGC803 cells) and cancer-bearing mice were used for the testing of in vitro cytotoxicity and in vivo antitumor efficiency of NPs. HA–CH–IRN/5-FU NPs displayed enhanced antitumor activity in vitro and in vivo than non-modified NPs, single drug-loaded NPs and drugs solutions. The results demonstrate that HA–CH–IRN/5-FU NPs can achieve impressive antitumor activity and the novel targeted drug delivery system offers a promising strategy for the treatment of gastric cancer.

Smart Poly(imidazoyl-l-lysine): Synthesis and Reversible Helix-to-Coil Transition at Neutral pH

Polypeptide polymers can adopt natural protein secondary structures such as α-helices or β-sheets, and this unique feature is at the origin of some intriguing physico–chemical properties. In this work, we present how side chain imidazoylation of a poly(l-lysine) scaffold affords the preparation of poly(histidine) counterparts exhibiting α-helix conformation. This structuring behavior is reversible and can be controlled by means of pH and or temperature changes.

A supramolecular nanoparticle system based on β-cyclodextrin-conjugated poly-l-lysine and hyaluronic acid for co-delivery of gene and chemotherapy agent targeting hepatocellular carcinoma

A novel supramolecular nanoparticle system with core-shell structure was designed based on β-cyclodextrin-conjugated poly-l-lysine (PLCD) and hyaluronic acid for co-delivery of gene and chemotherapy agent targeting hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). PLCD was synthesized by the conjugation of monoaldehyde activated β-cyclodextrin with poly-l-lysine via Shiff's base reaction. Doxorubicin, as a model therapeutic drug, was included into the hydrophobic cavity of β-cyclodextrin in PLCD through host-guest interaction. OligoRNA, as a model gene, was further condensed into the inclusion complexes by electrostatic interaction to form oligoRNA and doxorubicin co-loaded supramolecular nanoparticle system. Hyaluronic acid, which is often over-expressed by HCC cells, was coated on the surface of the above nanoparticles to construct HCC-targeted nanoparticle system. These nanoparticles had regular spherical shape with classic "core-shell" structure, and their size and zeta potential were 195.8nm and -22.7mV, respectively. The nanoparticles could effectively deliver doxorubicin and oligoRNA into HCC cells via CD44 receptor-mediated endocytosis and significantly inhibit the cell proliferation. In the nude mice bearing MHCC-97H tumor, the nanoparticles could be efficiently accumulated in the tumor, suggesting their strong hepatoma-targeting capability. These findings demonstrated that this novel supramolecular nanoparticle system had a promising potential for combining gene therapy and chemotherapy to treat HCC.

Minimum hyaluronic acid (HA) modified magnetic nanocrystals with less facilitated cancer migration and drug resistance for targeting CD44 abundant cancer cells by MR imaging

We report minimal amount of hyaluronic acid (HA) conjugated magnetic nanocrystals (mHMs) for targeted imaging of CD44 abundant breast cancer cells with less side effects via MRI.

Smart hyaluronidase-actived theranostic micelles for dual-modal imaging guided photodynamic therapy

We here report smart hyaluronidase-actived theranostic nanoparticles based on hyaluronic acid (HA) coupled with chlorin e6 (Ce6) via adipic dihydrazide (ADH) forming HA-ADH-Ce6 conjugates and self-assembling into HACE NPs. The resulting nanoparticles showed stable nano-structure in aqueous condition with uniform size distribution and can be actively disassembled in the presence of hyaluronidase (over-expressed in tumor cells), exhibiting hyaluronidase-responsive "OFF/ON" behavior of fluorescence signal. The HACE NPs were rapidly taken up to human lung cancer cells A549 via CD44 (the HA receptor on the surface of tumor cells) receptor mediated endocytosis. Upon laser irradiation, the HACE NPs realized good near-infrared fluorescence imaging and photoacoustic imaging in the tumor bearing mice, which showed 5-fold higher fluorescence intensity and 3-fold higher photoacoustic (PA) intensity than free Ce6, respectively. In addition, under low dose of laser power, the HACE NPs presented more effective photodynamic therapy to suppression of tumor growth than free Ce6 in vitro and in vivo. Overall, these results suggest that the well-defined HACE NPs is a biocompatible theranostic nanoplatform for in vivo dual-modal tumor imaging and phototherapy simultaneously.

Polyamine metabolism-based dual functional gene delivery system to synergistically inhibit the proliferation of cancer

Polyamine content, which is associated with tumor growth, can be regulated by ornithine decarboxylase (ODC) and S-adenosyl methionine decarboxylase (SAMDC), two key enzymes in polyamine biosynthesis. Here we aim to develop a pH-responsive cationic poly(agmatine) based on a polyamine analogue-agmatine that can dually function as a gene delivery vector as well as an anticancer agent by inhibiting ODC after intracellular degradation. The core-shell nanoparticles, formed by poly(agmatine)/SAMDC siRNA complex as a core, were coated with bovine serum albumin for better in vivo circulation stability and tumor targeting. When the nanoparticles were taken up by tumor cells via endocytosis and degraded in endosome, the released agmatine and SAMDC siRNA can synergistically inhibit polyamines biosynthesis, inducing inhibition of tumor proliferation. Our study offered a potential way in tumor therapy based on polyamine metabolism.

Co-delivery of drugs and plasmid DNA for cancer therapy

Cancer is an extremely complex disease involving multiple signaling pathways that enable tumor cells to evade programmed cell death, thus making cancer treatment extremely challenging. The use of combination therapy involving both gene therapy and chemotherapy has resulted in enhanced anti-cancer effects and has become an increasingly important strategy in medicine. This review will cover important design parameters that are incorporated into delivery systems for the co-administration of drug and plasmid-based nucleic acids (pDNA and shRNA), with particular emphasis on polymers as delivery materials. The unique challenges faced by co-delivery systems and the strategies to overcome such barriers will be discussed. In addition, the advantages and disadvantages of combination therapy using separate carrier systems versus the use of a single carrier will be evaluated. Finally, future perspectives in the design of novel platforms for the combined delivery of drugs and genes will be presented.

Hyaluronic acid for anticancer drug and nucleic acid delivery

Hyaluronic acid (HA) is widely used in anticancer drug delivery, since it is biocompatible, biodegradable, non-toxic, and non-immunogenic; moreover, HA receptors are overexpressed on many tumor cells. Exploiting this ligand-receptor interaction, the use of HA is now a rapidly-growing platform for targeting CD44-overexpressing cells, to improve anticancer therapies. The rationale underlying approaches, chemical strategies, and recent advances in the use of HA to design drug carriers for delivering anticancer agents, are reviewed. Comprehensive descriptions are given of HA-based drug conjugates, particulate carriers (micelles, liposomes, nanoparticles, microparticles), inorganic nanostructures, and hydrogels, with particular emphasis on reports of preclinical/clinical results.

Drug-conjugated polymers as gene carriers for synergistic therapeutic effect

The ability to safely and effectively transfer gene into cells is the fundamental goal of gene delivery. In spite of the best efforts of researchers around the world, gene therapy has limited success. This may be because of several limitations of delivering gene which is one of the greatest technical challenges in the modern medicine. To address these issues, many efforts have been made to bind drugs and genes together by polymers for co-delivery to achieve synergistic effect. Usually, binding interaction of drugs with polymers is either physical or chemical. In case of drug-polymer physical interaction, the efficiency of drugs generally decreases because of separation of drugs from polymers in vivo whenever it comes in contact with charged biofluid/s or cells. While chemical interaction of drug-polymer overcomes the aforementioned obstacle, several problems such as steric hindrance, solubility, and biodegradability hinder it to develop as gene carrier. Considering these benefits and pitfalls, the objective of this review is to discuss the possible extent of drug-conjugated polymers as safe and efficient gene delivery carriers for achieving synergistic effect to combat various genetic disorders.

The Role of CD44 in Disease Pathophysiology and Targeted Treatment

The cell-surface glycoprotein CD44 is involved in a multitude of important physiological functions including cell proliferation, adhesion, migration, hematopoiesis, and lymphocyte activation. The diverse physiological activity of CD44 is manifested in the pathology of a number of diseases including cancer, arthritis, bacterial and viral infections, interstitial lung disease, vascular disease, and wound healing. This diversity in biological activity is conferred by both a variety of distinct CD44 isoforms generated through complex alternative splicing, posttranslational modifications (e.g., N- and O-glycosylation), interactions with a number of different ligands, and the abundance and spatial distribution of CD44 on the cell surface. The extracellular matrix glycosaminoglycan hyaluronic acid (HA) is the principle ligand of CD44. This review focuses both CD44-hyaluronan dependent and independent CD44 signaling and the role of CD44–HA interaction in various pathophysiologies. The review also discusses recent advances in novel treatment strategies that exploit the CD44–HA interaction either for direct targeting or for drug delivery.

Hyaluronan/Ru(ii)-cyclodextrin supramolecular assemblies for colorimetric sensor of hyaluronidase activity

A hyaluronidase-induced colorimetric change was found in a hyaluronan/Ru(ii)-cyclodextrin supramolecular assembly under a laser (532 nm) irradiation.

A chitosan-graft-PEI-candesartan conjugate for targeted co-delivery of drug and gene in anti-angiogenesis cancer therapy

A multifunctional copolymer-anticancer conjugate chitosan-graft-polyethyleneimine-candesartan (CPC) containing low molecular weight chitosan (CS) backbone and polyethyleneimine (PEI) arms with candesartan (CD) conjugated via an amide bond was fabricated as a targeted co-delivery nanovector of drug and gene for potential cancer therapy. Here, CD was utilized to specifically bind to overexpressed angiotensin II type 1 receptor (AT1R) of tumor cells, strengthen endosomal buffering capacity of CPC and suppress tumor angiogenesis. The self-assembled CPC/pDNA complexes exhibited desirable and homogenous particle size, moderate positive charges, superior stability, and efficient release of drug and gene in vitro. Flow cytometry and confocal laser scanning microscopy analyses confirmed that CD-targeted function and CD-enhanced buffering capacity induced high transfection, specific cellular uptake and efficient intracellular delivery of CPC/pDNA complexes in AT1R-overexpressed PANC-1 cells. In addition, CPC/wt-p53 complexes co-delivering CD and wild type p53 (wt-p53) gene achieved synergistic angiogenesis suppression by more effectively downregulating the expression of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) mRNA and protein via different pathways in vitro, as compared to mono-delivery and mixed-delivery systems. In vivo investigation on nude mice bearing PANC-1 tumor xenografts revealed that CPC/wt-p53 complexes possessed high tumor-targeting capacity and strong anti-tumor activity. Additional analysis of microvessel density (MVD) demonstrated that CPC/wt-p53 complexes significantly inhibited tumor-associated angiogenesis. These findings suggested that CPC could be an ideal tumor-targeting nanovector for simultaneous transfer of drug and gene, and a multifunctional CPC/wt-p53 co-delivery system with tumor-specific targetability, enhanced endosomal buffering capacity and synergistic anti-angiogenesis efficacy might be a new promising strategy for effective tumor therapy.