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Xie S, Li Y, Cao W, Peng J, Huang K, Meng J, Li X. Dual-Responsive Nanogels with Cascaded Gentamicin Release and Lysosomal Escape to Combat Intracellular Small Colony Variants for Peritonitis and Sepsis Therapies. Adv Healthc Mater 2024; 13:e2303671. [PMID: 38416744 DOI: 10.1002/adhm.202303671] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2023] [Revised: 02/22/2024] [Indexed: 03/01/2024]
Abstract
Intracellular bacteria are the major cause of serious infections including sepsis and peritonitis, but face great challenges in fighting against the stubborn intracellular small colony variants (SCVs). Herein, the authors have developed nanogels (NGs) to destroy both planktonic bacteria and SCVs and eliminate excessive inflammations for peritonitis and sepsis therapies. Free gentamicin (GEN) and hydroxyapatite nanoparticles (NPs) with GEN loading and mannose grafts (mHAG) are inoculated into ε-polylysine NGs to obtain NG@G1-mHAG2 through crosslinking with phenylboronic acid and tannic acid. The H2O2 consumption after reaction with phenylboronic esters and the elimination of free radicals by tannic acid alleviates the escalated inflammatory status to promote sepsis therapy. After mannose-mediated uptake into macrophages, the acid-triggered degradation of mHAG NPs generates Ca2+ to destabilize lysosomes and the efficient lysosomal escape leads to reversion of hypometabolic SCVs into normal phenotype and their sensitivity to GEN. In a peritonitis mouse model, NG@G1-mHAG2 treatment provides strong and persistent bactericidal effects against both extracellular bacteria and intracellular SCVs and extends survival of peritonitis mice without apparent hepatomegaly, splenomegaly, pulmonary edema, and inflammatory cell infiltration. Thus, this study demonstrates a concise and versatile strategy to eliminate SCVs and relieve inflammatory storms for peritonitis and sepsis therapies without infection recurrence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuang Xie
- School of Life Science and Engineering, Key Laboratory of Advanced Technologies of Materials, Ministry of Education, Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu, 610031, P. R. China
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, College of Medicine, Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu, 610031, P. R. China
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu, 610031, P. R. China
| | - Yu Li
- School of Life Science and Engineering, Key Laboratory of Advanced Technologies of Materials, Ministry of Education, Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu, 610031, P. R. China
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, College of Medicine, Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu, 610031, P. R. China
| | - Wenxiong Cao
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, College of Medicine, Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu, 610031, P. R. China
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu, 610031, P. R. China
| | - Jiawen Peng
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, College of Medicine, Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu, 610031, P. R. China
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu, 610031, P. R. China
| | - Kun Huang
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu, 610031, P. R. China
| | - Jie Meng
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu, 610031, P. R. China
| | - Xiaohong Li
- School of Life Science and Engineering, Key Laboratory of Advanced Technologies of Materials, Ministry of Education, Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu, 610031, P. R. China
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, College of Medicine, Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu, 610031, P. R. China
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu, 610031, P. R. China
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2
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Bo Y, Wang Y, Han J, Bhatta R, Liu Y, Baskaran D, Zhou J, Wang H. Primary adipocytes as targetable drug depot to prevent post-surgical cancer recurrence. Mater Today Bio 2024; 25:101020. [PMID: 38500558 PMCID: PMC10945205 DOI: 10.1016/j.mtbio.2024.101020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2023] [Revised: 03/01/2024] [Accepted: 03/06/2024] [Indexed: 03/20/2024] Open
Abstract
Surgery followed by adjuvant chemotherapy or radiation therapy remains the mainstream treatment for breast cancer in the clinic. However, cancer recurrence post surgery is still common. In view of the clinical practice that autologous fat tissue grafting is often used to facilitate breast reconstruction after lumpectomy, here we develop an in vivo targetable adipocyte-based drug depot for the prevention of post-surgical cancer recurrence. We show that primary adipocytes can be metabolically labeled with clickable chemical tags (e.g., azido groups), for subsequent conjugation of dibenzocyclooctyne (DBCO)-bearing cargo via efficient click chemistry. The conjugated cargo can retain well on the adipocyte membrane. By incorporating a cleavable linker between DBCO and cargo, the conjugated cargo can be gradually released from the surface of adipocytes to effect on neighboring cells. In the context of breast cancer surgery, azido-labeled adipocytes grafted to the surgical site can capture circulating DBCO-drugs for improved prevention of 4T1 triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) recurrence and metastasis. This targetable and refillable adipocyte-based drug depot holds great promise for drug delivery, transplantation, and other applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Bo
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, 61801, USA
| | - Yueji Wang
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, 61801, USA
- Department of Mechanical Science and Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, 61801, USA
| | - Joonsu Han
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, 61801, USA
| | - Rimsha Bhatta
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, 61801, USA
| | - Yusheng Liu
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, 61801, USA
| | - Dhyanesh Baskaran
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, 61801, USA
| | - Jiadiao Zhou
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, 61801, USA
| | - Hua Wang
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, 61801, USA
- Cancer Center at Illinois (CCIL), Urbana, IL, 61801, USA
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, 61801, USA
- Carle College of Medicine, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, 61801, USA
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, 61801, USA
- Materials Research Laboratory, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, 61801, USA
- Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, 61801, USA
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3
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Yang N, Sun M, Wang H, Hu D, Zhang A, Khan S, Chen Z, Chen D, Xie S. Progress of stimulus responsive nanosystems for targeting treatment of bacterial infectious diseases. Adv Colloid Interface Sci 2024; 324:103078. [PMID: 38215562 DOI: 10.1016/j.cis.2024.103078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2023] [Revised: 12/27/2023] [Accepted: 01/02/2024] [Indexed: 01/14/2024]
Abstract
In recent decades, due to insufficient concentration at the lesion site, low bioavailability and increasingly serious resistance, antibiotics have become less and less dominant in the treatment of bacterial infectious diseases. It promotes the development of efficient drug delivery systems, and is expected to achieve high absorption, targeted drug release and satisfactory therapy effects. A variety of endogenous stimulation-responsive nanosystems have been constructed by using special infection microenvironments (pH, enzymes, temperature, etc.). In this review, we firstly provide an extensive review of the current research progress in antibiotic treatment dilemmas and drug delivery systems. Then, the mechanism of microenvironment characteristics of bacterial infected lesions was elucidated to provide a strong theoretical basis for bacteria-targeting nanosystems design. In particular, the discussion focuses on the design principles of single-stimulus and dual-stimulus responsive nanosystems, as well as the use of endogenous stimulus-responsive nanosystems to deliver antimicrobial agents to target locations for combating bacterial infectious diseases. Finally, the challenges and prospects of endogenous stimulus-responsive nanosystems were summarized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Niuniu Yang
- National Reference Laboratory of Veterinary Drug Residues (HZAU) and MAO Key Laboratory for Detection of Veterinary Drug Residues, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, China; Shenzhen Institute of Nutrition and Health,Huazhong Agricultural University, Shenzhen, China; Shenzhen Branch, Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture, Genome Analysis Laboratory of the Ministry of Agriculture, Agricultural Genomics Institute at Shenzhen, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shenzhen, China
| | - Mengyuan Sun
- National Reference Laboratory of Veterinary Drug Residues (HZAU) and MAO Key Laboratory for Detection of Veterinary Drug Residues, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, China
| | - Huixin Wang
- National Reference Laboratory of Veterinary Drug Residues (HZAU) and MAO Key Laboratory for Detection of Veterinary Drug Residues, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, China
| | - Danlei Hu
- National Reference Laboratory of Veterinary Drug Residues (HZAU) and MAO Key Laboratory for Detection of Veterinary Drug Residues, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, China
| | - Aoxue Zhang
- National Reference Laboratory of Veterinary Drug Residues (HZAU) and MAO Key Laboratory for Detection of Veterinary Drug Residues, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, China
| | - Suliman Khan
- National Reference Laboratory of Veterinary Drug Residues (HZAU) and MAO Key Laboratory for Detection of Veterinary Drug Residues, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, China
| | - Zhen Chen
- National Reference Laboratory of Veterinary Drug Residues (HZAU) and MAO Key Laboratory for Detection of Veterinary Drug Residues, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, China
| | - Dongmei Chen
- National Reference Laboratory of Veterinary Drug Residues (HZAU) and MAO Key Laboratory for Detection of Veterinary Drug Residues, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, China; Shenzhen Branch, Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture, Genome Analysis Laboratory of the Ministry of Agriculture, Agricultural Genomics Institute at Shenzhen, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shenzhen, China.
| | - Shuyu Xie
- National Reference Laboratory of Veterinary Drug Residues (HZAU) and MAO Key Laboratory for Detection of Veterinary Drug Residues, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, China; Shenzhen Institute of Nutrition and Health,Huazhong Agricultural University, Shenzhen, China; Shenzhen Branch, Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture, Genome Analysis Laboratory of the Ministry of Agriculture, Agricultural Genomics Institute at Shenzhen, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shenzhen, China.
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4
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Hydrophobic modification improves the delivery of cell-penetrating peptides to eliminate intracellular pathogens in animals. Acta Biomater 2023; 157:210-224. [PMID: 36503077 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2022.11.055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2022] [Revised: 11/22/2022] [Accepted: 11/28/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Infections induced by intracellular pathogens are difficult to eradicate due to poor penetration of antimicrobials into cell membranes. It is of great importance to develop a new generation of antibacterial agents with dual functions of efficient cell penetration and bacterial inhibition. In this study, the association between hydrophobicity and cell-penetrating peptide delivery efficiency was investigated by fragment interception and hydrophobicity modification of natural porcine antimicrobial peptide PR-39 and the combination of cationic cell-penetrating peptide (R6) with antimicrobial peptide fragments modified with hydrophobic residues. The chimeric peptides P3I7 and P3L7, obtained through biofunctional screening, exhibited potent broad-spectrum antibacterial activity and low cytotoxicity. Moreover, P3I7 and P3L7 can effectively penetrate cells to eliminate intracellular pathogens mainly through endocytosis. The membrane destruction mechanism makes the peptides fast sterilizers and less prone to developing drug resistance. Finally, their good biocompatibility and antibacterial infection effects were verified in mice and piglets. To conclude, the chimeric peptides P3I7 and P3L7 show great potential as affordable and effective antimicrobial agents and may serve as ideal candidates for the treatment of intracellular bacterial infections. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: The low permeability of antibacterial drugs makes infections induced by intracellular bacteria extremely difficult to treat. To address this issue, we designed chimeric peptides with dual cell-penetrating and antibacterial functions. The active peptides P3I7 and P3L7, acquired through functional screening have strong broad-spectrum antibacterial activity and powerful bactericidal effects against intracellular Staphylococcus aureus. The membrane permeation mechanism of P3I7 and P3L7 against bacteria endows fast bactericidal activity with low drug resistance. The biosafety and antibacterial activity of P3I7 and P3L7 were also validated by in vivo trials. This study provides an ideal drug candidate against intracellular bacterial infections.
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5
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Yu YJ, Yan JH, Chen QW, Qiao JY, Peng SY, Cheng H, Chen M, Zhang XZ. Polymeric nano-system for macrophage reprogramming and intracellular MRSA eradication. J Control Release 2023; 353:591-610. [PMID: 36503071 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2022.12.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2022] [Revised: 11/05/2022] [Accepted: 12/06/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Intracellular Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) remains a major factor of refractory and recurrent infections, which cannot be well addressed by antibiotic therapy. Here, we design a cellular infectious microenvironment-activatable polymeric nano-system to mediate targeted intracellular drug delivery for macrophage reprogramming and intracellular MRSA eradication. The polymeric nano-system is composed of a ferrocene-decorated polymeric nanovesicle formulated from poly(ferrocenemethyl methacrylate)-block-poly(2-methacryloyloxyethyl phosphorylcholine) (PFMMA-b-PMPC) copolymer with co-encapsulation of clofazimine (CFZ) and interferon-γ (IFN-γ). The cellular-targeting PMPC motifs render specific internalization by macrophages and allow efficient intracellular accumulation. Following the internalization, the ferrocene-derived polymer backbone sequentially undergoes hydrophobic-to-hydrophilic transition, charge reversal and Fe release in response to intracellular hydrogen peroxide over-produced upon infection, eventually triggering endosomal escape and on-site cytosolic drug delivery. The released IFN-γ reverses the immunosuppressive status of infected macrophages by reprogramming anti-inflammatory M2 to pro-inflammatory M1 phenotype. Meanwhile, intracellular Fe2+-mediated Fenton reaction together with antibiotic CFZ contributes to increased intracellular hydroxyl radical (•OH) generation. Ultimately, the nano-system achieves robust potency in ablating intracellular MRSA and antibiotic-tolerant persisters by synchronous immune modulation and efficient •OH killing, providing an innovative train of thought for intracellular MRSA control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yun-Jian Yu
- Key Laboratory of Biomedical Polymers of Ministry of Education, Department of Chemistry, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, PR China
| | - Jian-Hua Yan
- Key Laboratory of Biomedical Polymers of Ministry of Education, Department of Chemistry, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, PR China
| | - Qi-Wen Chen
- Key Laboratory of Biomedical Polymers of Ministry of Education, Department of Chemistry, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, PR China
| | - Ji-Yan Qiao
- Key Laboratory of Biomedical Polymers of Ministry of Education, Department of Chemistry, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, PR China
| | - Si-Yuan Peng
- Key Laboratory of Biomedical Polymers of Ministry of Education, Department of Chemistry, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, PR China
| | - Han Cheng
- Key Laboratory of Biomedical Polymers of Ministry of Education, Department of Chemistry, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, PR China
| | - Meiwan Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Institute of Chinese Medical Sciences, University of Macau, Macau, SAR, PR China.
| | - Xian-Zheng Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Biomedical Polymers of Ministry of Education, Department of Chemistry, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, PR China.
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6
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Chen X, Zhang Y, Yuan Q, Li M, Bian Y, Su D, Gao X. Bioorthogonal chemistry in metal clusters: a general strategy for the construction of multifunctional probes for bioimaging in living cells and in vivo. J Mater Chem B 2021; 9:6614-6622. [PMID: 34378627 DOI: 10.1039/d1tb00836f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Multifunctional bioimaging probes based on metal clusters have multiple characteristics of metal clusters and functional conjugates, and their development has broad application prospects in the fields of biomedical imaging and tumor diagnosis. However, current bioconjugation methods on metal clusters are time-consuming and have low reaction efficiency, which hinders the construction of bioimaging probes with multifunctional components. Here, we report a concise and promising design strategy to realize the simple and efficient introduction of functional conjugates through bioorthogonal reactions based on azido-functionalized metal clusters. Based on this strategy, taking the probe FA-CuC@BSA-Cy5 as an example, we demonstrated the design of a copper cluster-based multifunctional near-infrared (NIR) fluorescent probe and its real-time imaging application in vivo. Through the strain-promoted azide-alkyne cycloaddition (SPAAC) reaction, the tumor-specific targeting ligand folic acid (FA) and fluorophore (Cy5) can be chemically conjugated to azido-functionalized CuC@BSA-N3 quickly and efficiently under biocompatible conditions. The prepared probe showed numerous advantages of metal clusters, including good stability, ultra-small particle size and low toxicity and rapid renal clearance. At the same time, FA-modified FA-CuC@BSA-Cy5 can specifically target KB cells with high FR expression, and in vivo fluorescence imaging shows higher tumor accumulation. The construction of the azido functional metal cluster platform can be extended to various metal clusters with functional probes and prodrugs, thereby providing more promising candidates for future medical diagnoses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xueqian Chen
- Department of Chemistry and Biology, Faculty of Environment and Life Science, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing, 100124, P. R. China.
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7
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Jiang Y, Han M, Bo Y, Feng Y, Li W, Wu JR, Song Z, Zhao Z, Tan Z, Chen Y, Xue T, Fu Z, Kuo SH, Lau GW, Luijten E, Cheng J. "Metaphilic" Cell-Penetrating Polypeptide-Vancomycin Conjugate Efficiently Eradicates Intracellular Bacteria via a Dual Mechanism. ACS CENTRAL SCIENCE 2020; 6:2267-2276. [PMID: 33376787 PMCID: PMC7760462 DOI: 10.1021/acscentsci.0c00893] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2020] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
Infections by intracellular pathogens are difficult to treat because of the poor accessibility of antibiotics to the pathogens encased by host cell membranes. As such, a strategy that can improve the membrane permeability of antibiotics would significantly increase their efficiency against the intracellular pathogens. Here, we report the design of an adaptive, metaphilic cell-penetrating polypeptide (CPP)-antibiotic conjugate (VPP-G) that can effectively eradicate the intracellular bacteria both in vitro and in vivo. VPP-G was synthesized by attaching vancomycin to a highly membrane-penetrative guanidinium-functionalized metaphilic CPP. VPP-G effectively kills not only extracellular but also far more challenging intracellular pathogens, such as S. aureus, methicillin-resistant S. aureus, and vancomycin-resistant Enterococci. VPP-G enters the host cell via a unique metaphilic membrane penetration mechanism and kills intracellular bacteria through disruption of both cell wall biosynthesis and membrane integrity. This dual antimicrobial mechanism of VPP-G prevents bacteria from developing drug resistance and could also potentially kill dormant intracellular bacteria. VPP-G effectively eradicates MRSA in vivo, significantly outperforming vancomycin, which represents one of the most effective intracellular antibacterial agents reported so far. This strategy can be easily adapted to develop other conjugates against different intracellular pathogens by attaching different antibiotics to these highly membrane-penetrative metaphilic CPPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yunjiang Jiang
- Department
of Materials Science and Engineering, Beckman Institute for Advanced
Science and Technology, Department of Bioegineering, Department of Chemistry, Department of Pathobiology, University of Illinois at Urbana−Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Ming Han
- Applied Physics Graduate Program, Department of Materials Science and Engineering,Department of Engineering
Sciences and Applied Mathematics, Department of Chemistry, Department of Physics and Astronomy, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
- Chicago
Materials Research Center, University of
Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, United States
| | - Yang Bo
- Department
of Materials Science and Engineering, Beckman Institute for Advanced
Science and Technology, Department of Bioegineering, Department of Chemistry, Department of Pathobiology, University of Illinois at Urbana−Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Yujun Feng
- Department
of Materials Science and Engineering, Beckman Institute for Advanced
Science and Technology, Department of Bioegineering, Department of Chemistry, Department of Pathobiology, University of Illinois at Urbana−Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Wenming Li
- Department
of Materials Science and Engineering, Beckman Institute for Advanced
Science and Technology, Department of Bioegineering, Department of Chemistry, Department of Pathobiology, University of Illinois at Urbana−Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Jason Ren Wu
- Department
of Materials Science and Engineering, Beckman Institute for Advanced
Science and Technology, Department of Bioegineering, Department of Chemistry, Department of Pathobiology, University of Illinois at Urbana−Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Ziyuan Song
- Department
of Materials Science and Engineering, Beckman Institute for Advanced
Science and Technology, Department of Bioegineering, Department of Chemistry, Department of Pathobiology, University of Illinois at Urbana−Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Zihao Zhao
- Department
of Materials Science and Engineering, Beckman Institute for Advanced
Science and Technology, Department of Bioegineering, Department of Chemistry, Department of Pathobiology, University of Illinois at Urbana−Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Zhengzhong Tan
- Department
of Materials Science and Engineering, Beckman Institute for Advanced
Science and Technology, Department of Bioegineering, Department of Chemistry, Department of Pathobiology, University of Illinois at Urbana−Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Yingying Chen
- Department
of Materials Science and Engineering, Beckman Institute for Advanced
Science and Technology, Department of Bioegineering, Department of Chemistry, Department of Pathobiology, University of Illinois at Urbana−Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Tianrui Xue
- Department
of Materials Science and Engineering, Beckman Institute for Advanced
Science and Technology, Department of Bioegineering, Department of Chemistry, Department of Pathobiology, University of Illinois at Urbana−Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Zihuan Fu
- Department
of Materials Science and Engineering, Beckman Institute for Advanced
Science and Technology, Department of Bioegineering, Department of Chemistry, Department of Pathobiology, University of Illinois at Urbana−Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Shanny Hsuan Kuo
- Department
of Materials Science and Engineering, Beckman Institute for Advanced
Science and Technology, Department of Bioegineering, Department of Chemistry, Department of Pathobiology, University of Illinois at Urbana−Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Gee W. Lau
- Department
of Materials Science and Engineering, Beckman Institute for Advanced
Science and Technology, Department of Bioegineering, Department of Chemistry, Department of Pathobiology, University of Illinois at Urbana−Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Erik Luijten
- Applied Physics Graduate Program, Department of Materials Science and Engineering,Department of Engineering
Sciences and Applied Mathematics, Department of Chemistry, Department of Physics and Astronomy, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Jianjun Cheng
- Department
of Materials Science and Engineering, Beckman Institute for Advanced
Science and Technology, Department of Bioegineering, Department of Chemistry, Department of Pathobiology, University of Illinois at Urbana−Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
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