Three-dimensional bio-printing of primary human hepatocellular carcinoma for personalized medicine

3D-Bioprinting for Precision Microtissue Engineering: Advances, Applications, and Prospects

Microtissues, engineered to emulate the complexity of human organs, are revolutionizing the fields of regenerative medicine, disease modelling, and drug screening. Despite the promise of traditional microtissue engineering, it has yet to achieve the precision required to fully replicate organ-like structures. Enter 3D bioprinting, a transformative approach that offers unparalleled control over the microtissue's spatial arrangement and mechanical properties. This cutting-edge technology enables the detailed layering of bioinks, crafting microtissues with tissue-like 3D structures. It allows for the direct construction of organoids and the fine-tuning of the mechanical forces vital for tissue maturation. Moreover, 3D-printed devices provide microtissues with the necessary guidance and microenvironments, facilitating sophisticated tissue interactions. The applications of 3D-printed microtissues are expanding rapidly, with successful demonstrations of their functionality in vitro and in vivo. This technology excels at replicating the intricate processes of tissue development, offering a more ethical and controlled alternative to traditional animal models. By simulating in vivo conditions, 3D-printed microtissues are emerging as powerful tools for personalized drug screening, offering new avenues for pharmaceutical development and precision medicine.

Liver bioprinting within a novel support medium with functionalized spheroids, hepatic vein structures, and enhanced post-transplantation vascularization

Cell-laden bioprinting is a promising biofabrication strategy for regenerating bioactive transplants to address organ donor shortages. However, there has been little success in reproducing transplantable artificial organs with multiple distinctive cell types and physiologically relevant architecture. In this study, an omnidirectional printing embedded network (OPEN) is presented as a support medium for embedded 3D printing. The medium is state-of-the-art due to its one-step preparation, fast removal, and versatile ink compatibility. To test the feasibility of OPEN, exceptional primary mouse hepatocytes (PMHs) and endothelial cell line-C166, were used to print hepatospheroid-encapsulated-artificial livers (HEALs) with vein structures following predesigned anatomy-based printing paths in OPEN. PMHs self-organized into hepatocyte spheroids within the ink matrix, whereas the entire cross-linked structure remained intact for a minimum of ten days of cultivation. Cultivated HEALs maintained mature hepatic functions and marker gene expression at a higher level than conventional 2D and 3D conditions in vitro. HEALs with C166-laden vein structures promoted endogenous neovascularization in vivo compared with hepatospheroid-only liver prints within two weeks of transplantation. Collectively, the proposed platform enables the manufacture of bioactive tissues or organs resembling anatomical architecture, and has broad implications for liver function replacement in clinical applications.

Acoustic-holography-patterned primary hepatocytes possess liver functions

Acoustic holography (AH), a promising approach for cell patterning, emerges as a powerful tool for constructing novel invitro 3D models that mimic organs and cancers features. However, understanding changes in cell function post-AH remains limited. Furthermore, replicating complex physiological and pathological processes solely with cell lines proves challenging. Here, we employed acoustical holographic lattice to assemble primary hepatocytes directly isolated from mice into a cell cluster matrix to construct a liver-shaped tissue sample. For the first time, we evaluated the liver functions of AH-patterned primary hepatocytes. The patterned model exhibited large numbers of self-assembled spheroids and superior multifarious core hepatocyte functions compared to cells in 2D and traditional 3D culture models. AH offers a robust protocol for long-term in vitro culture of primary cells, underscoring its potential for future applications in disease pathogenesis research, drug testing, and organ replacement therapy.

3D Bioprinting in Cancer Modeling and Biomedicine: From Print Categories to Biological Applications

The continuous interaction between tumor cells and the local microenvironment plays a decisive role in tumor development. Selecting effective models to simulate the tumor microenvironment to study the physiological processes of tumorigenesis and progression is extremely important and challenging. Currently, three-dimensional (3D) bioprinting technology makes it possible to replicate a physiologically relevant tumor microenvironment and induce genomic and proteomic expression to better mimic tumors in vivo. Meanwhile, it plays a crucial role in the prevention and treatment of human diseases, contributing to drug delivery and drug screening, tissue development and regenerative medicine. This paper provides an overview of the categories of 3D bioprinting technology, and the recent advances in the bioinks required for printing. In addition, we summarize the current tumor models based on 3D bioprinting and provide an assessment of possible future biological applications.

Recent applications of three-dimensional bioprinting in drug discovery and development

The ability of three-dimensional (3D) bioprinting to fabricate biomimetic organ and disease models has been recognised to be promising for drug discovery and development as 3D bioprinted models can better mimic human physiology compared to two-dimensional (2D) cultures and animal models. This is useful for target selection where disease models can be studied to understand disease pathophysiology and identify disease-linked compounds. Lead identification and preclinical studies also benefit from 3D bioprinting as 3D bioprinted models can be utilised in high-throughput screening (HTS) systems and to produce efficacy and safety data that closely resembles clinical observations. Although no published applications of 3D bioprinting in clinical trials were found, there are two clinical trials planning to evaluate the predictive ability of 3D bioprinted models by comparing human and model responses to the same chemotherapy. Overall, this review provides a comprehensive summary of the latest applications of 3D bioprinting in drug discovery and development.

Developing Patient-Derived 3D-Bioprinting models of pancreatic cancer

INTRODUCTION

Pancreatic cancer (PC) remains a challenging malignancy, and adjuvant chemotherapy is critical in improving patient survival post-surgery. However, the intrinsic heterogeneity of PC necessitates personalized treatment strategies, highlighting the need for reliable preclinical models.

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to develop novel patient-derived preclinical PC models using three-dimensional bioprinting (3DP) technology.

METHODS

Patient-derived PC models were established using 3DP technology. Genomic and histological analyses were performed to characterize these models and compare them with corresponding patient tissues. Chemotherapeutic drug sensitivity tests were conducted on the PC 3DP models, and correlations with clinical outcomes were analyzed.

RESULTS

The study successfully established PC 3DP models with a modeling success rate of 86.96%. These models preserved genomic and histological features consistent with patient tissues. Drug sensitivity testing revealed significant heterogeneity among PC 3DP models, mirroring clinical variability, and potential correlations with clinical outcomes.

CONCLUSION

The PC 3DP models demonstrated their utility as reliable preclinical tools, retaining key genomic and histological characteristics. Importantly, drug sensitivity profiles in these models showed potential correlations with clinical outcomes, indicating their promise in customizing treatment strategies and predicting patient prognoses. Further validation with larger patient cohorts is warranted to confirm their potential clinical utility.

Multicellular 3D bioprinted human gallbladder carcinoma forin vitromimicry of tumor microenvironment and intratumoral heterogeneity

Gallbladder carcinoma (GBC) is a malignant hepatobiliary cancer characterized by an intricate tumor microenvironments (TME) and heterogeneity. The traditional GBC 2D culture models cannot faithfully recapitulate the characteristics of the TME. Three-dimensional (3D) bioprinting enables the establishment of high-throughput and high-fidelity multicellular GBC models. In this study, we designed a concentric cylindrical tetra-culture model to reconstitute the spatial distribution of cells in tumor tissue, with the inner portion containing GBC cells, and the outer ring containing a mixture of endothelial cells, fibroblasts, and macrophages. We confirmed the survival, proliferation, biomarker expression and gene expression profiles of GBC 3D tetra-culture models. Hematoxylin-eosin (HE) and immunofluorescence staining verified the morphology and robust expression of GBC/endothelial/fibroblast/macrophage biomarkers in GBC 3D tetra-culture models. Single-cell RNA sequencing revealed two distinct subtypes of GBC cells within the model, glandular epithelial and squamous epithelial cells, suggesting the mimicry of intratumoral heterogeneity. Comparative transcriptome profile analysis among variousin vitromodels revealed that cellular interactions and the TME in 3D tetra-culture models reshaped the biological processes of tumor cells to a more aggressive phenotype. GBC 3D tetra-culture models restored the characteristics of the TME as well as intratumoral heterogeneity. Therefore, this model is expected to have future applications in tumor biology research and antitumor drug development.

The Prospect of Hepatic Decellularized Extracellular Matrix as a Bioink for Liver 3D Bioprinting

The incidence of liver diseases is high worldwide. Many factors can cause liver fibrosis, which in turn can lead to liver cirrhosis and even liver cancer. Due to the shortage of donor organs, immunosuppression, and other factors, only a few patients are able to undergo liver transplantation. Therefore, how to construct a bioartificial liver that can be transplanted has become a global research hotspot. With the rapid development of three-dimensional (3D) bioprinting in the field of tissue engineering and regenerative medicine, researchers have tried to use various 3D bioprinting technologies to construct bioartificial livers in vitro. In terms of the choice of bioinks, liver decellularized extracellular matrix (dECM) has many advantages over other materials for cell-laden hydrogel in 3D bioprinting. This review mainly summarizes the acquisition of liver dECM and its application in liver 3D bioprinting as a bioink with respect to availability, printability, and biocompatibility in many aspects and puts forward the current challenges and prospects.

Nanocomposite Hydrogel Bioinks for 3D Bioprinting of Tumor Models

In vitro tumor models were successfully constructed by 3D bioprinting; however, bioinks with proper viscosity, good biocompatibility, and tunable biophysical and biochemical properties are highly desirable for tumor models that closely recapitulated the main features of native tumors. Here, we developed a nanocomposite hydrogel bioink that was used to construct ovarian and colon cancer models by 3D bioprinting. The nanocomposite bioink was composed of aldehyde-modified cellulose nanocrystals (aCNCs), aldehyde-modified hyaluronic acid (aHA), and gelatin. The hydrogels possessed tunable gelation time, mechanical properties, and printability by controlling the ratio between aCNCs and gelatin. In addition, ovarian and colorectal cancer cells embedded in hydrogels showed high survival rates and rapid growth. By the combination of 3D bioprinting, ovarian and colorectal tumor models were constructed in vitro and used for drug screening. The results showed that gemcitabine had therapeutic effects on ovarian tumor cells. However, the ovarian tumor model showed drug resistance for oxaliplatin treatment.

3D bioprinted tumor model: a prompt and convenient platform for overcoming immunotherapy resistance by recapitulating the tumor microenvironment

BACKGROUND

Cancer immunotherapy is receiving worldwide attention for its induction of an anti-tumor response. However, it has had limited efficacy in some patients who acquired resistance. The dynamic and sophisticated complexity of the tumor microenvironment (TME) is the leading contributor to this clinical dilemma. Through recapitulating the physiological features of the TME, 3D bioprinting is a promising research tool for cancer immunotherapy, which preserves in vivo malignant aggressiveness, heterogeneity, and the cell-cell/matrix interactions. It has been reported that application of 3D bioprinting holds potential to address the challenges of immunotherapy resistance and facilitate personalized medication.

CONCLUSIONS AND PERSPECTIVES

In this review, we briefly summarize the contributions of cellular and noncellular components of the TME in the development of immunotherapy resistance, and introduce recent advances in 3D bioprinted tumor models that served as platforms to study the interactions between tumor cells and the TME. By constructing multicellular 3D bioprinted tumor models, cellular and noncellular crosstalk is reproduced between tumor cells, immune cells, fibroblasts, adipocytes, and the extracellular matrix (ECM) within the TME. In the future, by quickly preparing 3D bioprinted tumor models with patient-derived components, information on tumor immunotherapy resistance can be obtained timely for clinical reference. The combined application with tumoroid or other 3D culture technologies will also help to better simulate the complexity and dynamics of tumor microenvironment in vitro. We aim to provide new perspectives for overcoming cancer immunotherapy resistance and inspire multidisciplinary research to improve the clinical application of 3D bioprinting technology.

3D bioprinting of liver models: A systematic scoping review of methods, bioinks, and reporting quality

Background

Effective communication is crucial for broad acceptance and applicability of alternative methods in 3R biomedical research and preclinical testing. 3D bioprinting is used to construct intricate biological structures towards functional liver models, specifically engineered for deployment as alternative models in drug screening, toxicological investigations, and tissue engineering. Despite a growing number of reviews in this emerging field, a comprehensive study, systematically assessing practices and reporting quality for bioprinted liver models is missing.

Methods

In this systematic scoping review we systematically searched MEDLINE (Ovid), EMBASE (Ovid) and BioRxiv for studies published prior to June 2nd, 2022. We extracted data on methodological conduct, applied bioinks, the composition of the printed model, performed experiments and model applications. Records were screened for eligibility and data were extracted from included articles by two independent reviewers from a panel of seven domain experts specializing in bioprinting and liver biology. We used RAYYAN for the screening process and SyRF for data extraction. We used R for data analysis, and R and Graphpad PRISM for visualization.

Results

Through our systematic database search we identified 1042 records, from which 63 met the eligibility criteria for inclusion in this systematic scoping review. Our findings revealed that extrusion-based printing, in conjunction with bioinks composed of natural components, emerged as the predominant printing technique in the bioprinting of liver models. Notably, the HepG2 hepatoma cell line was the most frequently employed liver cell type, despite acknowledged limitations. Furthermore, 51% of the printed models featured co-cultures with non-parenchymal cells to enhance their complexity. The included studies offered a variety of techniques for characterizing these liver models, with their primary application predominantly focused on toxicity testing. Among the frequently analyzed liver markers, albumin and urea stood out. Additionally, Cytochrome P450 (CYP) isoforms, primarily CYP3A and CYP1A, were assessed, and select studies employed nuclear receptor agonists to induce CYP activity.

Conclusion

Our systematic scoping review offers an evidence-based overview and evaluation of the current state of research on bioprinted liver models, representing a promising and innovative technology for creating alternative organ models. We conducted a thorough examination of both the methodological and technical facets of model development and scrutinized the reporting quality within the realm of bioprinted liver models. This systematic scoping review can serve as a valuable template for systematically evaluating the progress of organ model development in various other domains. The transparently derived evidence presented here can provide essential support to the research community, facilitating the adaptation of technological advancements, the establishment of standards, and the enhancement of model robustness. This is particularly crucial as we work toward the long-term objective of establishing new approach methods as reliable alternatives to animal testing, with extensive and versatile applications.

Drug screening on digital microfluidics for cancer precision medicine

Drug screening based on in-vitro primary tumor cell culture has demonstrated potential in personalized cancer diagnosis. However, the limited number of tumor cells, especially from patients with early stage cancer, has hindered the widespread application of this technique. Hence, we developed a digital microfluidic system for drug screening using primary tumor cells and established a working protocol for precision medicine. Smart control logic was developed to increase the throughput of the system and decrease its footprint to parallelly screen three drugs on a 4 × 4 cm2 chip in a device measuring 23 × 16 × 3.5 cm3. We validated this method in an MDA-MB-231 breast cancer xenograft mouse model and liver cancer specimens from patients, demonstrating tumor suppression in mice/patients treated with drugs that were screened to be effective on individual primary tumor cells. Mice treated with drugs screened on-chip as ineffective exhibited similar results to those in the control groups. The effective drug identified through on-chip screening demonstrated consistency with the absence of mutations in their related genes determined via exome sequencing of individual tumors, further validating this protocol. Therefore, this technique and system may promote advances in precision medicine for cancer treatment and, eventually, for any disease.

Targeting histone demethylases JMJD3 and UTX: selenium as a potential therapeutic agent for cervical cancer

BACKGROUND

The intriguing connection between selenium and cancer resembles a captivating puzzle that keeps researchers engaged and curious. While selenium has shown promise in reducing cancer risks through supplementation, its interaction with epigenetics in cervical cancer remains a fascinating yet largely unexplored realm. Unraveling the intricacies of selenium's role and its interaction with epigenetic factors could unlock valuable insights in the battle against this complex disease.

RESULT

Selenium has shown remarkable inhibitory effects on cervical cancer cells in various ways. In in vitro studies, it effectively inhibits the proliferation, migration, and invasion of cervical cancer cells, while promoting apoptosis. Selenium also demonstrates significant inhibitory effects on human cervical cancer-derived organoids. Furthermore, in an in vivo study, the administration of selenium dioxide solution effectively suppresses the growth of cervical cancer tumors in mice. One of the mechanisms behind selenium's inhibitory effects is its ability to inhibit histone demethylases, specifically JMJD3 and UTX. This inhibition is observed both in vitro and in vivo. Notably, when JMJD3 and UTX are inhibited with GSK-J4, similar biological effects are observed in both in vitro and in vivo models, effectively inhibiting organoid models derived from cervical cancer patients. Inhibiting JMJD3 and UTX also induces G2/M phase arrest, promotes cellular apoptosis, and reverses epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT). ChIP-qPCR analysis confirms that JMJD3 and UTX inhibition increases the recruitment of a specific histone modification, H3K27me3, to the transcription start sites (TSS) of target genes in cervical cancer cells (HeLa and SiHa cells). Furthermore, the expressions of JMJD3 and UTX are found to be significantly higher in cervical cancer tissues compared to adjacent normal cervical tissues, suggesting their potential as therapeutic targets.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study highlights the significant inhibitory effects of selenium on the growth, migration, and invasion of cervical cancer cells, promoting apoptosis and displaying promising potential as a therapeutic agent. We identified the histone demethylases JMJD3 and UTX as specific targets of selenium, and their inhibition replicates the observed effects on cancer cell behavior. These findings suggest that JMJD3 and UTX could be valuable targets for selenium-based treatments of cervical cancer.

Advancements of 3D bioprinting in regenerative medicine: Exploring cell sources for organ fabrication

3D bioprinting has unlocked new possibilities for generating complex and functional tissues and organs. However, one of the greatest challenges lies in selecting the appropriate seed cells for constructing fully functional 3D artificial organs. Currently, there are no cell sources available that can fulfill all requirements of 3D bioprinting technologies, and each cell source possesses unique characteristics suitable for specific applications. In this review, we explore the impact of different 3D bioprinting technologies and bioink materials on seed cells, providing a comprehensive overview of the current landscape of cell sources that have been used or hold potential in 3D bioprinting. We also summarized key points to guide the selection of seed cells for 3D bioprinting. Moreover, we offer insights into the prospects of seed cell sources in 3D bioprinted organs, highlighting their potential to revolutionize the fields of tissue engineering and regenerative medicine.

Prediction of Clinical Precision Chemotherapy by Patient-Derived 3D Bioprinting Models of Colorectal Cancer and Its Liver Metastases

Methods accurately predicting the responses of colorectal cancer (CRC) and colorectal cancer liver metastasis (CRLM) to personalized chemotherapy remain limited due to tumor heterogeneity. This study introduces an innovative patient-derived CRC and CRLM tumor model for preclinical investigation, utilizing 3d-bioprinting (3DP) technology. Efficient construction of homogeneous in vitro 3D models of CRC/CRLM is achieved through the application of patient-derived primary tumor cells and 3D bioprinting with bioink. Genomic and histological analyses affirm that the CRC/CRLM 3DP tumor models effectively retain parental tumor biomarkers and mutation profiles. In vitro tests evaluating chemotherapeutic drug sensitivities reveal substantial tumor heterogeneity in chemotherapy responses within the 3DP CRC/CRLM models. Furthermore, a robust correlation is evident between the drug response in the CRLM 3DP model and the clinical outcomes of neoadjuvant chemotherapy. These findings imply a significant potential for the application of patient-derived 3DP cancer models in precision chemotherapy prediction and preclinical research for CRC/CRLM.

Harnessing 3D in vitro systems to model immune responses to solid tumours: a step towards improving and creating personalized immunotherapies

In vitro 3D models are advanced biological tools that have been established to overcome the shortcomings of oversimplified 2D cultures and mouse models. Various in vitro 3D immuno-oncology models have been developed to mimic and recapitulate the cancer-immunity cycle, evaluate immunotherapy regimens, and explore options for optimizing current immunotherapies, including for individual patient tumours. Here, we review recent developments in this field. We focus, first, on the limitations of existing immunotherapies for solid tumours, secondly, on how in vitro 3D immuno-oncology models are established using various technologies - including scaffolds, organoids, microfluidics and 3D bioprinting - and thirdly, on the applications of these 3D models for comprehending the cancer-immunity cycle as well as for assessing and improving immunotherapies for solid tumours.

A comprehensive review on 3D tissue models: Biofabrication technologies and preclinical applications

The limitations of traditional two-dimensional (2D) cultures and animal testing, when it comes to precisely foreseeing the toxicity and clinical effectiveness of potential drug candidates, have resulted in a notable increase in the rate of failure during the process of drug discovery and development. Three-dimensional (3D) in-vitro models have arisen as substitute platforms with the capacity to accurately depict in-vivo conditions and increasing the predictivity of clinical effects and toxicity of drug candidates. It has been found that 3D models can accurately represent complex tissue structure of human body and can be used for a wide range of disease modeling purposes. Recently, substantial progress in biomedicine, materials and engineering have been made to fabricate various 3D in-vitro models, which have been exhibited better disease progression predictivity and drug effects than convention models, suggesting a promising direction in pharmaceutics. This comprehensive review highlights the recent developments in 3D in-vitro tissue models for preclinical applications including drug screening and disease modeling targeting multiple organs and tissues, like liver, bone, gastrointestinal tract, kidney, heart, brain, and cartilage. We discuss current strategies for fabricating 3D models for specific organs with their strengths and pitfalls. We expand future considerations for establishing a physiologically-relevant microenvironment for growing 3D models and also provide readers with a perspective on intellectual property, industry, and regulatory landscape.

Three Dimensional Bioprinting for Hepatic Tissue Engineering: From In Vitro Models to Clinical Applications

Fabrication of functional organs is the holy grail of tissue engineering and the possibilities of repairing a partial or complete liver to treat chronic liver disorders are discussed in this review. Liver is the largest gland in the human body and plays a responsible role in majority of metabolic function and processes. Chronic liver disease is one of the leading causes of death globally and the current treatment strategy of organ transplantation holds its own demerits. Hence there is a need to develop an in vitro liver model that mimics the native microenvironment. The developed model should be a reliable to understand the pathogenesis, screen drugs and assist to repair and replace the damaged liver. The three-dimensional bioprinting is a promising technology that recreates in vivo alike in vitro model for transplantation, which is the goal of tissue engineers. The technology has great potential due to its precise control and its ability to homogeneously distribute cells on all layers in a complex structure. This review gives an overview of liver tissue engineering with a special focus on 3D bioprinting and bioinks for liver disease modelling and drug screening.

3D Bioprinting: An Important Tool for Tumor Microenvironment Research

The tumor microenvironment plays a crucial role in cancer development and treatment. Traditional 2D cell cultures fail to fully replicate the complete tumor microenvironment, while mouse tumor models suffer from time-consuming procedures and complex operations. However, in recent years, 3D bioprinting technology has emerged as a vital tool in studying the tumor microenvironment. 3D bioprinting is a revolutionary biomanufacturing technique that involves layer-by-layer stacking of biological materials, such as cells and biomaterial scaffolds, to create highly precise 3D biostructures. This technology enables the construction of intricate tissue and organ models in the laboratory, which are utilized for biomedical research, drug development, and personalized medicine. The application of 3D bioprinting has brought unprecedented opportunities to fields such as cancer research, tissue engineering, and organ transplantation. It has opened new possibilities for addressing real-world biological challenges and improving medical treatment outcomes. This review summarizes the applications of 3D bioprinting technology in the context of the tumor microenvironment, aiming to explore its potential impact on cancer research and treatment. The use of this cutting-edge technology promises significant advancements in understanding cancer biology and enhancing medical interventions.

Advancements and application prospects of three-dimensional models for primary liver cancer: a comprehensive review

Primary liver cancer (PLC) is one of the most commonly diagnosed cancers worldwide and a leading cause of cancer-related deaths. However, traditional liver cancer models fail to replicate tumor heterogeneity and the tumor microenvironment, limiting the study and personalized treatment of liver cancer. To overcome these limitations, scientists have introduced three-dimensional (3D) culture models as an emerging research tool. These 3D models, utilizing biofabrication technologies such as 3D bioprinting and microfluidics, enable more accurate simulation of the in vivo tumor microenvironment, replicating cell morphology, tissue stiffness, and cell-cell interactions. Compared to traditional two-dimensional (2D) models, 3D culture models better mimic tumor heterogeneity, revealing differential sensitivity of tumor cell subpopulations to targeted therapies or immunotherapies. Additionally, these models can be used to assess the efficacy of potential treatments, providing guidance for personalized therapy. 3D liver cancer models hold significant value in tumor biology, understanding the mechanisms of disease progression, and drug screening. Researchers can gain deeper insights into the impact of the tumor microenvironment on tumor cells and their interactions with the surrounding milieu. Furthermore, these models allow for the evaluation of treatment responses, offering more accurate guidance for clinical interventions. In summary, 3D models provide a realistic and reliable tool for advancing PLC research. By simulating tumor heterogeneity and the microenvironment, these models contribute to a better understanding of the disease mechanisms and offer new strategies for personalized treatment. Therefore, 3D models hold promising prospects for future PLC research.

Microfluidic-based platforms for cell-to-cell communication studies

Intercellular communication is critical to the understanding of human health and disease progression. However, compared to traditional methods with inefficient analysis, microfluidic co-culture technologies developed for cell-cell communication research can reliably analyze crucial biological processes, such as cell signaling, and monitor dynamic intercellular interactions under reproducible physiological cell co-culture conditions. Moreover, microfluidic-based technologies can achieve precise spatial control of two cell types at the single-cell level with high throughput. Herein, this review focuses on recent advances in microfluidic-based 2D and 3D devices developed to confine two or more heterogeneous cells in the study of intercellular communication and decipher the advantages and limitations of these models in specific cellular research scenarios. This review will stimulate the development of more functionalized microfluidic platforms for biomedical research, inspiring broader interests across various disciplines to better comprehend cell-cell communication and other fields, such as tumor heterogeneity and drug screening.

Patient-derived tumor models in cancer research: Evaluation of the oncostatic effects of melatonin

The development of new anticancer therapies tends to be very slow. Although their impact on potential candidates is confirmed in preclinical studies, ∼95 % of these new therapies are not approved when tested in clinical trials. One of the main reasons for this is the lack of accurate preclinical models. In this context, there are different patient-derived models, which have emerged as a powerful oncological tool: patient-derived xenografts (PDXs), patient-derived organoids (PDOs), and patient-derived cells (PDCs). Although all these models are widely applied, PDXs, which are created by engraftment of patient tumor tissues into mice, is considered more reliable. In fundamental research, the PDX model is used to evaluate drug-sensitive markers and, in clinical practice, to select a personalized therapeutic strategy. Melatonin is of particular importance in the development of innovative cancer treatments due to its oncostatic impact and lack of adverse effects. However, the literature regarding the oncostatic effect of melatonin in patient-derived tumor models is scant. This review aims to describe the important role of patient-derived models in the development of anticancer treatments, focusing, in particular, on PDX models, as well as their use in cancer research. This review also summarizes the existing literature on the anti-tumoral effect of melatonin in patient-derived models in order to propose future anti-neoplastic clinical applications.

Recent advances in 3D bioprinted tumor models for personalized medicine

Cancerous tumors are among the most fatal diseases worldwide, claiming nearly 10 million lives in 2020. Due to their complex and dynamic nature, modeling tumors accurately is a challenging task. Current models suffer from inadequate translation between in vitro and in vivo results, primarily due to the isotropic nature of tumors and their microenvironment's relationship. To address these limitations, hydrogel-based 3D bioprinting is emerging as a promising approach to mimic cancer development and behavior. It provides precise control over individual elements' size and distribution within the cancer microenvironment and enables the use of patient-derived tumor cells, rather than commercial lines. Consequently, hydrogel bioprinting is expected to become a state-of-the-art technique for cancer research. This manuscript presents an overview of cancer statistics, current modeling methods, and their limitations. Additionally, we highlight the significance of bioprinting, its applications in cancer modeling, and the importance of hydrogel selection. We further explore the current state of creating models for the five deadliest cancers using 3D bioprinting. Finally, we discuss current trends and future perspectives on the clinical use of cancer modeling using hydrogel bioprinting.

A preclinical platform for assessing long-term drug efficacy exploiting mechanically tunable scaffolds colonized by a three-dimensional tumor microenvironment

BACKGROUND

Long-term drug evaluation heavily relies upon rodent models. Drug discovery methods to reduce animal models in oncology may include three-dimensional (3D) cellular systems that take into account tumor microenvironment (TME) cell types and biomechanical properties.

METHODS

In this study we reconstructed a 3D tumor using an elastic polymer (acrylate-endcapped urethane-based poly(ethylene glycol) (AUPPEG)) with clinical relevant stiffness. Single cell suspensions from low-grade serous ovarian cancer (LGSOC) patient-derived early passage cultures of cancer cells and cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAF) embedded in a collagen gel were introduced to the AUPPEG scaffold. After self-organization in to a 3D tumor, this model was evaluated by a long-term (> 40 days) exposure to a drug combination of MEK and HSP90 inhibitors. The drug-response results from this long-term in vitro model are compared with drug responses in an orthotopic LGSOC xenograft mouse model.

RESULTS

The in vitro 3D scaffold LGSOC model mimics the growth ratio and spatial organization of the LGSOC. The AUPPEG scaffold approach allows to test new targeted treatments and monitor long-term drug responses. The results correlate with those of the orthotopic LGSOC xenograft mouse model.

CONCLUSIONS

The mechanically-tunable scaffolds colonized by a three-dimensional LGSOC allow long-term drug evaluation and can be considered as a valid alternative to reduce, replace and refine animal models in drug discovery.

Application of three-dimensional (3D) bioprinting in anti-cancer therapy

Three-dimensional (3D) bioprinting is a novel technology that enables the creation of 3D structures with bioinks, the biomaterials containing living cells. 3D bioprinted structures can mimic human tissue at different levels of complexity from cells to organs. Currently, 3D bioprinting is a promising method in regenerative medicine and tissue engineering applications, as well as in anti-cancer therapy research. Cancer, a type of complex and multifaceted disease, presents significant challenges regarding diagnosis, treatment, and drug development. 3D bioprinted models of cancer have been used to investigate the molecular mechanisms of oncogenesis, the development of cancers, and the responses to treatment. Conventional 2D cancer models have limitations in predicting human clinical outcomes and drug responses, while 3D bioprinting offers an innovative technique for creating 3D tissue structures that closely mimic the natural characteristics of cancers in terms of morphology, composition, structure, and function. By precise manipulation of the spatial arrangement of different cell types, extracellular matrix components, and vascular networks, 3D bioprinting facilitates the development of cancer models that are more accurate and representative, emulating intricate interactions between cancer cells and their surrounding microenvironment. Moreover, the technology of 3D bioprinting enables the creation of personalized cancer models using patient-derived cells and biomarkers, thereby advancing the fields of precision medicine and immunotherapy. The integration of 3D cell models with 3D bioprinting technology holds the potential to revolutionize cancer research, offering extensive flexibility, precision, and adaptability in crafting customized 3D structures with desired attributes and functionalities. In conclusion, 3D bioprinting exhibits significant potential in cancer research, providing opportunities for identifying therapeutic targets, reducing reliance on animal experiments, and potentially lowering the overall cost of cancer treatment. Further investigation and development are necessary to address challenges such as cell viability, printing resolution, material characteristics, and cost-effectiveness. With ongoing progress, 3D bioprinting can significantly impact the field of cancer research and improve patient outcomes.

Application of 3D Bioprinting in Liver Diseases

Liver diseases are the primary reason for morbidity and mortality in the world. Owing to a shortage of organ donors and postoperative immune rejection, patients routinely suffer from liver failure. Unlike 2D cell models, animal models, and organoids, 3D bioprinting can be successfully employed to print living tissues and organs that contain blood vessels, bone, and kidney, heart, and liver tissues and so on. 3D bioprinting is mainly classified into four types: inkjet 3D bioprinting, extrusion-based 3D bioprinting, laser-assisted bioprinting (LAB), and vat photopolymerization. Bioinks for 3D bioprinting are composed of hydrogels and cells. For liver 3D bioprinting, hepatic parenchymal cells (hepatocytes) and liver nonparenchymal cells (hepatic stellate cells, hepatic sinusoidal endothelial cells, and Kupffer cells) are commonly used. Compared to conventional scaffold-based approaches, marked by limited functionality and complexity, 3D bioprinting can achieve accurate cell settlement, a high resolution, and more efficient usage of biomaterials, better mimicking the complex microstructures of native tissues. This method will make contributions to disease modeling, drug discovery, and even regenerative medicine. However, the limitations and challenges of this method cannot be ignored. Limitation include the requirement of diverse fabrication technologies, observation of drug dynamic response under perfusion culture, the resolution to reproduce complex hepatic microenvironment, and so on. Despite this, 3D bioprinting is still a promising and innovative biofabrication strategy for the creation of artificial multi-cellular tissues/organs.

Mechanical confinement promotes heat resistance of hepatocellular carcinoma via SP1/IL4I1/AHR axis

Mechanical stress can modulate the fate of cells in both physiological and extreme conditions. Recurrence of tumors after thermal ablation, a radical therapy for many cancers, indicates that some tumor cells can endure temperatures far beyond physiological ones. This unusual heat resistance with unknown mechanisms remains a key obstacle to fully realizing the clinical potential of thermal ablation. By developing a 3D bioprinting-based thermal ablation system, we demonstrate that hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) cells in this 3D model exhibit enhanced heat resistance as compared with cells on plates. Mechanistically, the activation of transcription factor SP1 under mechanical confinement enhances the transcription of Interleukin-4-Induced-1, which catalyzes tryptophan metabolites to activate the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR), leading to heat resistance. Encouragingly, the AHR inhibitor prevents HCC recurrence after thermal ablation. These findings reveal a previously unknown role of mechanical confinement in heat resistance and provide a rationale for AHR inhibitors as neoadjuvant therapy.

3D Biomimetic Models to Reconstitute Tumor Microenvironment In Vitro: Spheroids, Organoids, and Tumor-on-a-Chip

Decades of efforts in engineering in vitro cancer models have advanced drug discovery and the insight into cancer biology. However, the establishment of preclinical models that enable fully recapitulating the tumor microenvironment remains challenging owing to its intrinsic complexity. Recent progress in engineering techniques has allowed the development of a new generation of in vitro preclinical models that can recreate complex in vivo tumor microenvironments and accurately predict drug responses, including spheroids, organoids, and tumor-on-a-chip. These biomimetic 3D tumor models are of particular interest as they pave the way for better understanding of cancer biology and accelerating the development of new anticancer therapeutics with reducing animal use. Here, the recent advances in developing these in vitro platforms for cancer modeling and preclinical drug screening, focusing on incorporating hydrogels are reviewed to reconstitute physiologically relevant microenvironments. The combination of spheroids/organoids with microfluidic technologies is also highlighted to better mimic in vivo tumors and discuss the challenges and future directions in the clinical translation of such models for drug screening and personalized medicine.

3D Bioprinting as a Powerful Technique for Recreating the Tumor Microenvironment

In vitro three-dimensional models aim to reduce and replace animal testing and establish new tools for oncology research and the development and testing of new anticancer therapies. Among the various techniques to produce more complex and realistic cancer models is bioprinting, which allows the realization of spatially controlled hydrogel-based scaffolds, easily incorporating different types of cells in order to recreate the crosstalk between cancer and stromal components. Bioprinting exhibits other advantages, such as the production of large constructs, the repeatability and high resolution of the process, as well as the possibility of vascularization of the models through different approaches. Moreover, bioprinting allows the incorporation of multiple biomaterials and the creation of gradient structures to mimic the heterogeneity of the tumor microenvironment. The aim of this review is to report the main strategies and biomaterials used in cancer bioprinting. Moreover, the review discusses several bioprinted models of the most diffused and/or malignant tumors, highlighting the importance of this technique in establishing reliable biomimetic tissues aimed at improving disease biology understanding and high-throughput drug screening.

3D bioprinted liver tissue and disease models: Current advances and future perspectives

Three-dimensional (3D) bioprinting is a promising technology for fabricating complex tissue constructs with biomimetic biological functions and stable mechanical properties. In this review, the characteristics of different bioprinting technologies and materials are compared, and development in strategies for bioprinting normal and diseased hepatic tissue are summarized. In particular, features of bioprinting and other bio-fabrication strategies, such as organoids and spheroids are compared to demonstrate the strengths and weaknesses of 3D printing technology. Directions and suggestions, such as vascularization and primary human hepatocyte culture, are provided for the future development of 3D bioprinting.

Personalized treatment for hepatocellular carcinoma in the era of targeted medicine and bioengineering

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is a major global health burden, causing approximately 8.3 million deaths each year, and it is the third leading cause of cancer-related death worldwide, with a relative 5-year survival rate of around 18%. Due to the advanced stage of diagnosis in most patients, systemic treatment based on targeted therapy has become the only feasible option. Genomic studies have established a profile of molecular alterations in hepatocellular carcinoma with potentially actionable mutations, but these mutations have yet to be translated into clinical practice. The first targeted drug approved for systemic treatment of patients with advanced hepatocellular carcinoma was Sorafenib, which was a milestone. Subsequent clinical trials have identified multiple tyrosine kinase inhibitors, such as Lenvatinib, Cabozantinib, and Regorafenib, for the treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma, with survival benefits for the patient. Ongoing systemic therapy studies and trials include various immune-based combination therapies, with some early results showing promise and potential for new therapy plans. Systemic therapy for hepatocellular carcinoma is complicated by the significant heterogeneity of the disease and its propensity for developing drug resistance. Therefore, it is essential to choose a better, individualized treatment plan to benefit patients. Preclinical models capable of preserving in vivo tumor characteristics are urgently needed to circumvent heterogeneity and overcome drug resistance. In this review, we summarize current approaches to targeted therapy for HCC patients and the establishment of several patient-derived preclinical models of hepatocellular carcinoma. We also discuss the challenges and opportunities of targeted therapy for hepatocellular carcinoma and how to achieve personalized treatment with the continuous development of targeted therapies and bioengineering technologies.

3D bioprinting tumor models mimic the tumor microenvironment for drug screening

Cancer is a severe threat to human life and health and represents the main cause of death globally. Drug therapy is one of the primary means of treating cancer; however, most anticancer medications do not proceed beyond preclinical testing because the conditions of actual human tumors are not effectively mimicked by traditional tumor models. Hence, bionic in vitro tumor models must be developed to screen for anticancer drugs. Three-dimensional (3D) bioprinting technology can produce structures with built-in spatial and chemical complexity and models with accurately controlled structures, a homogeneous size and morphology, less variation across batches, and a more realistic tumor microenvironment (TME). This technology can also rapidly produce such models for high-throughput anticancer medication testing. This review describes 3D bioprinting methods, the use of bioinks in tumor models, and in vitro tumor model design strategies for building complex tumor microenvironment features using biological 3D printing technology. Moreover, the application of 3D bioprinting in vitro tumor models in drug screening is also discussed.

3D bioprinting of gastrointestinal cancer models: A comprehensive review on processing, properties, and therapeutic implications

Gastrointestinal tract (GIT) malignancies are an important public health problem considering the increased incidence in recent years and the high morbidity and mortality associated with it. GIT malignancies constitute 26% of the global cancer incidence burden and 35% of all cancer-related deaths. Gastrointestinal cancers are complex and heterogenous diseases caused by the interplay of genetic and environmental factors. The tumor microenvironment (TME) of gastrointestinal tract carcinomas is dynamic and complex; it cannot be recapitulated in the basic two-dimensional cell culture systems. In contrast, three-dimensional (3D) in vitro models can mimic the TME more closely, enabling an improved understanding of the microenvironmental cues involved in the various stages of cancer initiation, progression, and metastasis. However, the heterogeneity of the TME is incompletely reproduced in these 3D culture models, as they fail to regulate the orientation and interaction of various cell types in a complex architecture. To emulate the TME, 3D bioprinting has emerged as a useful technique to engineer cancer tissue models. Bioprinted cancer tissue models can potentially recapitulate cancer pathology and increase drug resistance in an organ-mimicking 3D environment. In this review, we describe the 3D bioprinting methods, bioinks, characterization of 3D bioprinted constructs, and their application in developing gastrointestinal tumor models that integrate their microenvironment with different cell types and substrates, as well as bioprinting modalities and their application in therapy and drug screening. We review prominent studies on the 3D bioprinted esophageal, hepatobiliary, and colorectal cancer models. In addition, this review provides a comprehensive understanding of the cancer microenvironment in printed tumor models, highlights current challenges with respect to their clinical translation, and summarizes future perspectives.

Bioabsorbable nano-micelle hybridized hydrogel scaffold prevents postoperative melanoma recurrence

The residual and scattered small tumor tissue or cells after surgery are the main reason for tumor recurrence. Chemotherapy has a powerful ability to eradicate tumors but always accompanied by serious side effects. In this work, tissue-affinity mercapto gelatin (GelS) and dopamine-modified hyaluronic acid (HAD) were employed to fabricate a hybridized cross-linked hydrogel scaffold (HG) by multiple chemical reactions, which could integrate the doxorubicin (DOX) loaded reduction-responsive nano-micelle (PP/DOX) into this scaffold via click reaction to obtain the bioabsorbable nano-micelle hybridized hydrogel scaffold (HGMP). With the degradation of HGMP, PP/DOX was slowly released and formed targeted PP/DOX with degraded gelatin fragments as target molecules, which increased the intracellular accumulation, and inhibited the aggregation of B16F10 cells in vitro. In mouse models, HGMP absorbed the scattered B16F10 cells and released targeted PP/DOX to suppress tumorigenesis. For another, implantation of HGMP at the surgical site reduced the recurrence rate of postoperative melanoma and inhibited the growth of recurrent tumors. Meanwhile, HGMP significantly relieved the damage of free DOX to hair follicle tissue. This bioabsorbable nano-micelle hybridized hydrogel scaffold provided a valuable strategy for adjuvant therapy after tumor surgery.

Liver Organoids as an In Vitro Model to Study Primary Liver Cancer

Primary liver cancers (PLC), including hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) and cholangiocarcinoma (CCA), are among the leading causes of cancer-related mortality worldwide. Bi-dimensional in vitro models are unable to recapitulate the key features of PLC; consequently, recent advancements in three-dimensional in vitro systems, such as organoids, opened up new avenues for the development of innovative models for studying tumour's pathological mechanisms. Liver organoids show self-assembly and self-renewal capabilities, retaining essential aspects of their respective in vivo tissue and allowing modelling diseases and personalized treatment development. In this review, we will discuss the current advances in the field of liver organoids focusing on existing development protocols and possible applications in regenerative medicine and drug discovery.

Opportunities and challenges of hepatocellular carcinoma organoids for targeted drugs sensitivity screening

Hepatocellular carcinoma is one of the malignancies worldwide with a high mortality rate and an increasing incidence. Molecular Targeted agents are its common first-line treatment. Organoid technology, as a cutting-edge technology, is gradually being applied in the development of therapeutic oncology. Organoid models can be used to perform sensitivity screening of targeted drugs to facilitate the development of innovative therapeutic agents for the treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma. The purpose of this review is to provide an overview of the opportunities and challenges of hepatocellular carcinoma organoids in targeted drug sensitivity testing as well as a future outlook.

Recent advances of three-dimensional bioprinting technology in hepato-pancreato-biliary cancer models

Hepato-pancreato-biliary (HPB) cancer is a serious category of cancer including tumors originating in the liver, pancreas, gallbladder and biliary ducts. It is limited by two-dimensional (2D) cell culture models for studying its complicated tumor microenvironment including diverse contents and dynamic nature. Recently developed three-dimensional (3D) bioprinting is a state-of-the-art technology for fabrication of biological constructs through layer-by-layer deposition of bioinks in a spatially defined manner, which is computer-aided and designed to generate viable 3D constructs. 3D bioprinting has the potential to more closely recapitulate the tumor microenvironment, dynamic and complex cell-cell and cell-matrix interactions compared to the current methods, which benefits from its precise definition of positioning of various cell types and perfusing network in a high-throughput manner. In this review, we introduce and compare multiple types of 3D bioprinting methodologies for HPB cancer and other digestive tumors. We discuss the progress and application of 3D bioprinting in HPB and gastrointestinal cancers, focusing on tumor model manufacturing. We also highlight the current challenges regarding clinical translation of 3D bioprinting and bioinks in the field of digestive tumor research. Finally, we suggest valuable perspectives for this advanced technology, including combination of 3D bioprinting with microfluidics and application of 3D bioprinting in the field of tumor immunology.

3D bioprinted cancer models: from basic biology to drug development

Effort invested in the development of new drugs often fails to be translated into meaningful clinical benefits for patients with cancer. The development of more effective anticancer therapeutics and accurate prediction of their clinical merit remain urgent unmet medical needs. As solid cancers have complex and heterogeneous structures composed of different cell types and extracellular matrices, three-dimensional (3D) cancer models hold great potential for advancing our understanding of cancer biology, which has been historically investigated in tumour cell cultures on rigid plastic plates. Advanced 3D bioprinted cancer models have the potential to revolutionize the way we discover therapeutic targets, develop new drugs and personalize anticancer therapies in an accurate, reproducible, clinically translatable and robust manner. These ex vivo cancer models are already replacing existing in vitro systems and could, in the future, diminish or even replace the use of animal models. Therefore, profound understanding of the differences in tumorigenesis between 2D, 3D and animal models of cancer is essential. This Review presents the state of the art of 3D bioprinted cancer modelling, focusing on the biological processes that underlie the molecular mechanisms involved in cancer progression and treatment response as well as on proteomic and genomic signatures.

Multi-omics analysis based on 3D-bioprinted models innovates therapeutic target discovery of osteosarcoma

Current in vitro models for osteosarcoma investigation and drug screening, including two-dimensional (2D) cell culture and tumour spheroids (i.e. cancer stem-like cells), lack extracellular matrix (ECM). Therefore, results from traditional models may not reflect real pathological processes in genuine osteosarcoma histological structures. Here, we report a three-dimensional (3D) bioprinted osteosarcoma model (3DBPO) that contains osteosarcoma cells and shrouding ECM analogue in a 3D frame. Photo-crosslinkable bioinks composed of gelatine methacrylamide and hyaluronic acid methacrylate mimicked tumour ECM. We performed multi-omics analysis, including transcriptomics and DNA methylomics, to determine differences between the 3DBPO model and traditional models. Compared with 2D models and tumour spheroids, our 3DBPO model showed significant changes in cell cycle, metabolism, adherens junctions, and other pathways associated with epigenetic regulation. The 3DBPO model was more sensitive to therapies targeted to the autophagy pathway. We showed that simulating ECM yielded different osteosarcoma cell metabolic characteristics and drug sensitivity in the 3DBPO model compared with classical models. We suggest 3D printed osteosarcoma models can be used in osteosarcoma fundamental and translational research, which may contribute to novel therapeutic strategy discovery.

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3DBPO model behaved better than traditional 2D and CSC models in simulating in vivo osteosarcoma microenvironment.

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3DBPO model showed significant changes in many signaling pathways associated with epigenetic regulation.

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3DBPO model was particularly sensitive to autophagy-related drugs.

Culture of patient-derived multicellular clusters in suspended hydrogel capsules for pre-clinical personalized drug screening

A personalized medication regimen provides precise treatment for an individual and can be guided by pre-clinical drug screening. The economical and high-efficiency simulation of the liver tumor microenvironment (TME) in a drug-screening model has high value yet challenging to accomplish. Herein, we propose a simulation of the liver TME with suspended alginate-gelatin hydrogel capsules encapsulating patient-derived liver tumor multicellular clusters, and the culture of patient-derived tumor organoids(PDTOs) for personalized pre-clinical drug screening. The hydrogel capsule offers a 3D matrix environment with mechanical and biological properties similar to those of the liver in vivo. As a result, 18 of the 28 patient-derived multicellular clusters were successfully cultured as PDTOs. These PDTOs, along with hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) of non-cellular components, preserve stromal cells, including cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) and vascular endothelial cells (VECs). They also maintain stable expression of molecular markers and tumor heterogeneity similar to those of the original liver tumors. Drugs, including cabazitaxel, oxaliplatin, and sorafenib, were tested in PDTOs. The sensitivity of PDTOs to these drugs differs between individuals. The sensitivity of one PDTO to oxaliplatin was validated using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and biochemical tests after oxaliplatin clinical treatment of the corresponding patient. Therefore, this approach is promising for economical, accurate, and high-throughput drug screening for personalized treatment.

Toward 3D-Bioprinted Models of the Liver to Boost Drug Development

The main problems in drug development are connected to enormous costs related to the paltry success rate. The current situation empowered the development of high-throughput and reliable instruments, in addition to the current golden standards, able to predict the failures in the early preclinical phase. Being hepatotoxicity responsible for the failure of 30% of clinical trials, and the 21% of withdrawal of marketed drugs, the development of complex in vitro models (CIVMs) of liver is currently one of the hottest topics in the field. Among the different fabrication techniques, 3D-bioprinting is emerging as a powerful ally for their production, allowing the manufacture of three-dimensional constructs characterized by computer-controlled and customized geometry, and inter-batches reproducibility. Thanks to these, it is possible to rapidly produce tailored cell-laden constructs, to be cultured within static and dynamic systems, thus reaching a further degree of personalization when designing in vitro models. This review highlights and prioritizes the most recent advances related to the development of CIVMs of the hepatic environment to be specifically applied to pharmaceutical research, with a special focus on 3D-bioprinting, since the liver is primarily involved in the metabolism of drugs.

Current trends and research topics regarding liver 3D bioprinting: A bibliometric analysis research

Introduction: Over recent years, 3D bioprinting has changed dramatically. The articles related to liver 3D bioprinting have not been quantitatively analyzed. In this article, we screen all articles related to liver 3D bioprinting until January 2022 and analyzed them using bibliometric citation analysis to characterize the current trends in liver 3D bioprinting. Methods: The articles were identified and analyzed from the Clarivate Analytics Web of Science Core Collection database. Results: Until 1 January 2022, 71 articles focusing on liver 3D bioprinting were identified. There was an increase in the number of articles in 2015. Most articles came from the USA (n = 27), followed by South Korea (n = 22), China (n = 16), and Japan (n = 5). The printing technology of liver 3D printing was the most studied topic (n = 29). Biofabrication published the highest number of papers (n = 16) with 1,524 total citations. Conclusion: Based on bibliometric analysis of the articles until January 2022, a comprehensive analysis of the liver 3D bioprinting articles highlighted the current trends and research topics of this field. The data should provide clinicians and researchers insight into future directions relative to the liver 3D bioprinting.

Constructing biomimetic liver models through biomaterials and vasculature engineering

The occurrence of various liver diseases can lead to organ failure of the liver, which is one of the leading causes of mortality worldwide. Liver tissue engineering see the potential for replacing liver transplantation and drug toxicity studies facing donor shortages. The basic elements in liver tissue engineering are cells and biomaterials. Both mature hepatocytes and differentiated stem cells can be used as the main source of cells to construct spheroids and organoids, achieving improved cell function. To mimic the extracellular matrix (ECM) environment, biomaterials need to be biocompatible and bioactive, which also help support cell proliferation and differentiation and allow ECM deposition and vascularized structures formation. In addition, advanced manufacturing approaches are required to construct the extracellular microenvironment, and it has been proved that the structured three-dimensional culture system can help to improve the activity of hepatocytes and the characterization of specific proteins. In summary, we review biomaterials for liver tissue engineering, including natural hydrogels and synthetic polymers, and advanced processing techniques for building vascularized microenvironments, including bioassembly, bioprinting and microfluidic methods. We then summarize the application fields including transplant and regeneration, disease models and drug cytotoxicity analysis. In the end, we put the challenges and prospects of vascularized liver tissue engineering.

Patient-derived cancer models: Valuable platforms for anticancer drug testing

Molecularly targeted treatments and immunotherapy are cornerstones in oncology, with demonstrated efficacy across different tumor types. Nevertheless, the overwhelming majority metastatic disease is incurable due to the onset of drug resistance. Preclinical models including genetically engineered mouse models, patient-derived xenografts and two- and three-dimensional cell cultures have emerged as a useful resource to study mechanisms of cancer progression and predict efficacy of anticancer drugs. However, variables including tumor heterogeneity and the complexities of the microenvironment can impair the faithfulness of these platforms. Here, we will discuss advantages and limitations of these preclinical models, their applicability for drug testing and in co-clinical trials and potential strategies to increase their reliability in predicting responsiveness to anticancer medications.

Mathematical model and genomics construction of developmental biology patterns using digital image technology

Biological pattern formation ensures that tissues and organs develop in the correct place and orientation within the body. A great deal has been learned about cell and tissue staining techniques, and today’s microscopes can capture digital images. A light microscope is an essential tool in biology and medicine. Analyzing the generated images will involve the creation of unique analytical techniques. Digital images of the material before and after deformation can be compared to assess how much strain and displacement the material responds. Furthermore, this article proposes Development Biology Patterns using Digital Image Technology (DBP-DIT) to cell image data in 2D, 3D, and time sequences. Engineered materials with high stiffness may now be characterized via digital image correlation. The proposed method of analyzing the mechanical characteristics of skin under various situations, such as one direction of stress and temperatures in the hundreds of degrees Celsius, is achievable using digital image correlation. A DBP-DIT approach to biological tissue modeling is based on digital image correlation (DIC) measurements to forecast the displacement field under unknown loading scenarios without presupposing a particular constitutive model form or owning knowledge of the material microstructure. A data-driven approach to modeling biological materials can be more successful than classical constitutive modeling if adequate data coverage and advice from partial physics constraints are available. The proposed procedures include a wide range of biological objectives, experimental designs, and laboratory preferences. The experimental results show that the proposed DBP-DIT achieves a high accuracy ratio of 99,3%, a sensitivity ratio of 98.7%, a specificity ratio of 98.6%, a probability index of 97.8%, a balanced classification ratio of 97.5%, and a low error rate of 38.6%.

Three-dimensional (3D) cell culture: a valuable step in advancing treatments for human hepatocellular carcinoma

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the fifth most common malignant cancer and the third most frequent cause of tumour-related mortality worldwide. Currently, several surgical and medical therapeutic strategies are available for HCCs; however, the interaction between neoplastic cells and non-neoplastic stromal cells within the tumour microenvironment (TME) results in strong therapeutic resistance of HCCs to conventional treatment. Therefore, the development of novel treatments is urgently needed to improve the survival of patients with HCC. The first step in developing efficient chemotherapeutic drugs is the establishment of an appropriate system for studying complex tumour culture and microenvironment interactions. Three-dimensional (3D) culture model might be a crucial bridge between in vivo and in vitro due to its ability to mimic the naturally complicated in vivo TME compared to conventional two-dimensional (2D) cultures. In this review, we shed light on various established 3D culture models of HCC and their role in the investigation of tumour-TME interactions and HCC-related therapeutic resistance.

Three-Dimensional Bioprinting of Decellularized Extracellular Matrix-Based Bioinks for Tissue Engineering

Three-dimensional (3D) bioprinting is one of the most promising additive manufacturing technologies for fabricating various biomimetic architectures of tissues and organs. In this context, the bioink, a critical element for biofabrication, is a mixture of biomaterials and living cells used in 3D printing to create cell-laden structures. Recently, decellularized extracellular matrix (dECM)-based bioinks derived from natural tissues have garnered enormous attention from researchers due to their unique and complex biochemical properties. This review initially presents the details of the natural ECM and its role in cell growth and metabolism. Further, we briefly emphasize the commonly used decellularization treatment procedures and subsequent evaluations for the quality control of the dECM. In addition, we summarize some of the common bioink preparation strategies, the 3D bioprinting approaches, and the applicability of 3D-printed dECM bioinks to tissue engineering. Finally, we present some of the challenges in this field and the prospects for future development.

Role of three-dimensional printing and artificial intelligence in the management of hepatocellular carcinoma: Challenges and opportunities

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) constitutes the fifth most frequent malignancy worldwide and the third most frequent cause of cancer-related deaths. Currently, treatment selection is based on the stage of the disease. Emerging fields such as three-dimensional (3D) printing, 3D bioprinting, artificial intelligence (AI), and machine learning (ML) could lead to evidence-based, individualized management of HCC. In this review, we comprehensively report the current applications of 3D printing, 3D bioprinting, and AI/ML-based models in HCC management; we outline the significant challenges to the broad use of these novel technologies in the clinical setting with the goal of identifying means to overcome them, and finally, we discuss the opportunities that arise from these applications. Notably, regarding 3D printing and bioprinting-related challenges, we elaborate on cost and cost-effectiveness, cell sourcing, cell viability, safety, accessibility, regulation, and legal and ethical concerns. Similarly, regarding AI/ML-related challenges, we elaborate on intellectual property, liability, intrinsic biases, data protection, cybersecurity, ethical challenges, and transparency. Our findings show that AI and 3D printing applications in HCC management and healthcare, in general, are steadily expanding; thus, these technologies will be integrated into the clinical setting sooner or later. Therefore, we believe that physicians need to become familiar with these technologies and prepare to engage with them constructively.