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Wang CS, Xu Y, Wang SP, Zheng CL, Wang G, Sun Q. Recent advances in selective mono-/dichalcogenation and exclusive dichalcogenation of C(sp 2)-H and C(sp 3)-H bonds. Org Biomol Chem 2024; 22:645-681. [PMID: 38180073 DOI: 10.1039/d3ob01847d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2024]
Abstract
Organochalcogen compounds are prevalent in numerous natural products, pharmaceuticals, agrochemicals, polymers, biological molecules and synthetic intermediates. Direct chalcogenation of C-H bonds has evolved as a step- and atom-economical method for the synthesis of chalcogen-bearing compounds. Nevertheless, direct C-H chalcogenation severely lags behind C-C, C-N and C-O bond formations. Moreover, compared with the C-H monochalcogenation, reports of selective mono-/dichalcogenation and exclusive dichalcogenation of C-H bonds are relatively scarce. The past decade has witnessed significant advancements in selective mono-/dichalcogenation and exclusive dichalcogenation of various C(sp2)-H and C(sp3)-H bonds via transition-metal-catalyzed/mediated, photocatalytic, electrochemical or metal-free approaches. In light of the significance of both mono- and dichalcogen-containing compounds in various fields of chemical science and the critical issue of chemoselectivity in organic synthesis, the present review systematically summarizes the advances in these research fields, with a special focus on elucidating scopes and mechanistic aspects. Moreover, the synthetic limitations, applications of some of these processes, the current challenges and our own perspectives on these highly active research fields are also discussed. Based on the substrate types and C-H bonds being chalcogenated, the present review is organized into four sections: (1) transition-metal-catalyzed/mediated chelation-assisted selective C-H mono-/dichalcogenation or exclusive dichalcogenation of (hetero)arenes; (2) directing group-free selective C-H mono-/dichalcogenation or exclusive dichalcogenation of electron-rich (hetero)arenes; (3) C(sp3)-H dichalcogenation; (4) dichalcogenation of both C(sp2)-H and C(sp3)-H bonds. We believe the present review will serve as an invaluable resource for future innovations and drug discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chang-Sheng Wang
- School of Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, 30 Puzhu Rd S., Nanjing 211816, PR China.
| | - Yuan Xu
- School of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology, Nanyang Technological University, 637371, Singapore.
| | - Shao-Peng Wang
- School of Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, 30 Puzhu Rd S., Nanjing 211816, PR China.
| | - Chun-Ling Zheng
- School of Food Science and Light Industry, Nanjing Tech University, 30 Puzhu Rd S., Nanjing 211816, PR China.
| | - Guowei Wang
- School of Food Science and Light Industry, Nanjing Tech University, 30 Puzhu Rd S., Nanjing 211816, PR China.
| | - Qiao Sun
- School of Food Science and Light Industry, Nanjing Tech University, 30 Puzhu Rd S., Nanjing 211816, PR China.
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de Giacometi M, Mayer JCP, de Mello AB, Islabão YW, Strothmann AL, da Fonseca RN, Sena-Lopes Â, Dornelles L, Borsuk S, Hübner SDO, Oliveira CB. Activity of compounds derived from benzofuroxan in Trichomonasvaginalis. Exp Parasitol 2023; 253:108601. [PMID: 37625643 DOI: 10.1016/j.exppara.2023.108601] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2023] [Revised: 08/08/2023] [Accepted: 08/19/2023] [Indexed: 08/27/2023]
Abstract
Trichomoniasis is a sexually transmitted infection caused by the protozoan Trichomonas vaginalis. Currently, trichomoniasis is treated with the class of nitroimidazoles, namely, metronidazole; however, resistant isolates and strains have been reported. The compounds derived from benzofuroxan are biologically active heterocycles. This study evaluated the in vitro antiparasitic activity of these compounds in trophozoites of T. vaginalis and determined the mean inhibitory concentration (IC50), minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC), mortality curve, and cytotoxicity. The compounds were named EH1, EH2, EH3, and EA2 and tested in various concentrations: 100 to 15 μM (EH1 and EH2); 100 to 5 μM (EH3); and 100 to 25 μM (EA2), respectively. The greatest efficacy was observed in the highest concentrations in 24 h, with inhibition of approximately 100% of trophozoites. Compounds EH2 and EH3 had the lowest MIC: EH2 (35 μM) and EH3 (45 μM), with IC50 of 11.33 μM and 6.83 μM, respectively. Compound EA2 was effective at the highest concentrations. The activity of the compounds in T. vaginalis started in the first hour of incubation with 90% inhibition; after 12 h, inhibition >95% was observed. Compound EH1 showed the lowest activity, with the highest activity between 12 and 24 h after incubation. These results demonstrate that benzofuroxan derivatives are promising compounds for the in vitro treatment of T. vaginalis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marjorie de Giacometi
- Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, Federal University of Pelotas, Pelotas, RS, Brazil
| | - João Cândido Pilar Mayer
- Department of Chemistry, LabSelen-NanoBio, Federal University of Santa Maria, Santa Maria, RS, Brazil
| | - Alexia Brauner de Mello
- Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, Federal University of Pelotas, Pelotas, RS, Brazil
| | - Yan Wahast Islabão
- Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, Federal University of Pelotas, Pelotas, RS, Brazil
| | - Adriane Leites Strothmann
- Center for Technological Development, Biotechnology, Federal University of Pelotas, Pelotas, RS, Brazil
| | | | - Ângela Sena-Lopes
- Center for Technological Development, Biotechnology, Federal University of Pelotas, Pelotas, RS, Brazil
| | - Luciano Dornelles
- Department of Chemistry, LabSelen-NanoBio, Federal University of Santa Maria, Santa Maria, RS, Brazil
| | - Sibele Borsuk
- Center for Technological Development, Biotechnology, Federal University of Pelotas, Pelotas, RS, Brazil
| | | | - Camila Belmonte Oliveira
- Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, Federal University of Pelotas, Pelotas, RS, Brazil.
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Barbosa TN, Silva MTDO, Sena-Lopes Â, Kremer FS, Sousa FSS, Seixas FK, Collares TV, de Pereira CMP, Borsuk S. Bioprospection of the trichomonacidal activity of lipid extracts derived from marine macroalgae Gigartina skottsbergii. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0285426. [PMID: 37155662 PMCID: PMC10166524 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0285426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2022] [Accepted: 04/21/2023] [Indexed: 05/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Algal extracts are sources of bioactive substances with applications in the development of novel alternative drugs against several diseases, including trichomoniasis sexually transmitted infection caused by Trichomonas vaginalis. Factors such as clinical failures and resistant strains limit the success of the existing drugs available for treating this disease. Therefore, searching for viable alternatives to these drugs is essential for the treatment of this disease. The present study was conducted for, in vitro and in silico characterization of extracts obtained from marine macroalgae Gigartina skottsbergii at stages gametophidic, cystocarpic, and tetrasporophidic. In addition, antiparasitic activity of these extracts against the ATCC 30236 isolate of T. vaginalis, their cytotoxicity, and gene expression of trophozoites after treatment were evaluated. The minimum inhibitory concentration and 50% inhibition concentration were determined for each extract. Results: In vitro analysis of the extracts' anti-T. vaginalis activity revealed an inhibitory effect of 100%, 89.61%, and 86.95% for Gigartina skottsbergii at stages gametophidic, cystocarpic, and tetrasporophidic, respectively, at 100 μg/mL. In silico analysis revealed the interactions between constituents of the extracts and enzymes from T. vaginalis, with significant free energy values obtained for the binding. None of the extract concentrations exhibited cytotoxic effects on VERO cell line compared to control, while cytotoxicity on HMVII vaginal epithelial cells line was observed at 100 μg/mL (30% inhibition). Gene expression analysis revealed differences in the expression profile of T. vaginalis enzymes between the extract-treated and control groups. According to these results, Gigartina skottsbergii extracts exhibited satisfactory antiparasitic activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tallyson Nogueira Barbosa
- Laboratório de Biotecnologia Infecto-Parasitária, Centro de Desenvolvimento Tecnológico, Biotecnologia, UFPel, Pelotas, Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil
| | - Mara Thais de Oliveira Silva
- Laboratório de Biotecnologia Infecto-Parasitária, Centro de Desenvolvimento Tecnológico, Biotecnologia, UFPel, Pelotas, Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil
| | - Ângela Sena-Lopes
- Laboratório de Biotecnologia Infecto-Parasitária, Centro de Desenvolvimento Tecnológico, Biotecnologia, UFPel, Pelotas, Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil
| | - Frederico Schmitt Kremer
- Laboratório de Lipidômica e Bio-orgânica, Centro de Ciências Químicas, Farmacêuticas e de Alimentos, UFPel, Pelotas, Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil
| | - Fernanda Severo Sabedra Sousa
- Laboratório de Bioinformática e Proteômica, Centro de Desenvolvimento Tecnológico, Biotecnologia, UFPel, Pelotas, Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil
| | - Fabiana Kommling Seixas
- Laboratório de Bioinformática e Proteômica, Centro de Desenvolvimento Tecnológico, Biotecnologia, UFPel, Pelotas, Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil
| | - Tiago Veiras Collares
- Laboratório de Bioinformática e Proteômica, Centro de Desenvolvimento Tecnológico, Biotecnologia, UFPel, Pelotas, Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil
| | - Cláudio Martin Pereira de Pereira
- Laboratório de Biotecnologia do Câncer, Centro de Desenvolvimento Tecnológico, Biotecnologia, UFPel, Pelotas, Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil
| | - Sibele Borsuk
- Laboratório de Biotecnologia Infecto-Parasitária, Centro de Desenvolvimento Tecnológico, Biotecnologia, UFPel, Pelotas, Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil
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Alves MSD, Sena-Lopes Â, das Neves RN, Casaril AM, Domingues M, Birmann PT, da Silva ET, de Souza MVN, Savegnago L, Borsuk S. In vitro and in silico trichomonacidal activity of 2,8-bis(trifluoromethyl) quinoline analogs against Trichomonas vaginalis. Parasitol Res 2022; 121:2697-2711. [PMID: 35857093 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-022-07598-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2022] [Accepted: 07/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Trichomoniasis is a great public health burden worldwide and the increase in treatment failures has led to a need for finding alternative molecules to treat this disease. In this study, we present in vitro and in silico analyses of two 2,8-bis(trifluoromethyl) quinolines (QDA-1 and QDA-2) against Trichomonas vaginalis. For in vitro trichomonacidal activity, up to seven different concentrations of these drugs were tested. Molecular docking, biochemical, and cytotoxicity analyses were performed to evaluate the selectivity profile. QDA-1 displayed a significant effect, completely reducing trophozoites viability at 160 µM, with an IC50 of 113.8 µM, while QDA-2 at the highest concentration reduced viability by 76.9%. QDA-1 completely inhibited T. vaginalis growth and increased reactive oxygen species production and lipid peroxidation after 24 h of treatment, but nitric oxide accumulation was not observed. In addition, molecular docking studies showed that QDA-1 has a favorable binding mode in the active site of the T. vaginalis enzymes purine nucleoside phosphorylase, lactate dehydrogenase, triosephosphate isomerase, and thioredoxin reductase. Moreover, QDA-1 presented a level of cytotoxicity by reducing 36.7% of Vero cells' viability at 200 µM with a CC50 of 247.4 µM and a modest selectivity index. In summary, the results revealed that QDA-1 had a significant anti-T. vaginalis activity. Although QDA-1 had detectable cytotoxicity, the concentration needed to eliminate T. vaginalis trophozoites is lower than the CC50 encouraging further studies of this compound as a trichomonacidal agent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mirna Samara Dié Alves
- Laboratório de Biotecnologia Infecto-Parasitária, Centro de Desenvolvimento Tecnológico, Biotecnologia, Universidade Federal de Pelotas, Pelotas, RS, 96010-900, Brazil
| | - Ângela Sena-Lopes
- Laboratório de Biotecnologia Infecto-Parasitária, Centro de Desenvolvimento Tecnológico, Biotecnologia, Universidade Federal de Pelotas, Pelotas, RS, 96010-900, Brazil
| | - Raquel Nascimento das Neves
- Laboratório de Biotecnologia Infecto-Parasitária, Centro de Desenvolvimento Tecnológico, Biotecnologia, Universidade Federal de Pelotas, Pelotas, RS, 96010-900, Brazil
| | - Angela Maria Casaril
- Laboratório de Neurobiotecnologia, Centro de Desenvolvimento Tecnológico, Biotecnologia, Universidade Federal de Pelotas, Pelotas, RS, 96010-900, Brazil
| | - Micaela Domingues
- Laboratório de Neurobiotecnologia, Centro de Desenvolvimento Tecnológico, Biotecnologia, Universidade Federal de Pelotas, Pelotas, RS, 96010-900, Brazil
| | - Paloma Taborda Birmann
- Laboratório de Neurobiotecnologia, Centro de Desenvolvimento Tecnológico, Biotecnologia, Universidade Federal de Pelotas, Pelotas, RS, 96010-900, Brazil
| | - Emerson Teixeira da Silva
- Instituto de Tecnologia em Fármacos - Far-Manguinhos, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz (Fiocruz), Rio de Janeiro, RJ, 21041-250, Brazil
| | - Marcus Vinicius Nora de Souza
- Instituto de Tecnologia em Fármacos - Far-Manguinhos, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz (Fiocruz), Rio de Janeiro, RJ, 21041-250, Brazil.,Programa de Pós-Graduação em Química, Instituto de Química, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, 21945-970, Brazil
| | - Lucielli Savegnago
- Laboratório de Neurobiotecnologia, Centro de Desenvolvimento Tecnológico, Biotecnologia, Universidade Federal de Pelotas, Pelotas, RS, 96010-900, Brazil
| | - Sibele Borsuk
- Laboratório de Biotecnologia Infecto-Parasitária, Centro de Desenvolvimento Tecnológico, Biotecnologia, Universidade Federal de Pelotas, Pelotas, RS, 96010-900, Brazil.
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Blödorn GB, Sacramento M, Sandagorda EMA, Lima AS, Reis JS, Silva MS, Alves D. Silver-catalyzed synthesis of symmetrical diaryl tellurides from arylboronic acids and tellurium. NEW J CHEM 2022. [DOI: 10.1039/d2nj04019k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The synthesis of symmetrical tellurides from different arylboronic acids and elemental tellurium using AgNO3 as a catalyst was performed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gustavo B. Blödorn
- Laboratório de Síntese Orgânica Limpa – LASOL – CCQFA – Universidade Federal de Pelotas – UFPel, P.O. Box 354 – 96010-900, Pelotas, RS, Brazil
| | - Manoela Sacramento
- Laboratório de Síntese Orgânica Limpa – LASOL – CCQFA – Universidade Federal de Pelotas – UFPel, P.O. Box 354 – 96010-900, Pelotas, RS, Brazil
| | - Eduardo M. A. Sandagorda
- Laboratório de Síntese Orgânica Limpa – LASOL – CCQFA – Universidade Federal de Pelotas – UFPel, P.O. Box 354 – 96010-900, Pelotas, RS, Brazil
| | - Ariana S. Lima
- Laboratório de Síntese Orgânica Limpa – LASOL – CCQFA – Universidade Federal de Pelotas – UFPel, P.O. Box 354 – 96010-900, Pelotas, RS, Brazil
| | - Joel S. Reis
- Institute of Chemistry, Fluminense Federal University, UFF, CEP: 24020-141, Niteroi, RJ, Brazil
| | - Márcio S. Silva
- Laboratório de Síntese Orgânica Limpa – LASOL – CCQFA – Universidade Federal de Pelotas – UFPel, P.O. Box 354 – 96010-900, Pelotas, RS, Brazil
| | - Diego Alves
- Laboratório de Síntese Orgânica Limpa – LASOL – CCQFA – Universidade Federal de Pelotas – UFPel, P.O. Box 354 – 96010-900, Pelotas, RS, Brazil
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Maganhi SH, Caracelli I, Zukerman-Schpector J, Cunha RL, Veja-Teijido MA, Tiekink ER. Crystal structures and docking studies in cathepsin S of bioactive 1,3‐diphenyl‐4‐(trichloro‐λ4‐tellanyl)but‐2‐en‐1‐one derivatives. J Mol Struct 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molstruc.2021.130935] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Souza JPA, Menezes LRA, Garcia FP, Scariot DB, Bandeira PT, Bespalhok MB, Giese SOK, Hughes DL, Nakamura CV, Barison A, Oliveira ARM, Campos RB, Piovan L. Synthesis, Mechanism Elucidation and Biological Insights of Tellurium(IV)-Containing Heterocycles. Chemistry 2021; 27:14427-14437. [PMID: 34406689 DOI: 10.1002/chem.202102287] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Inspired by the synthetic and biological potential of organotellurium substances, a series of five- and six-membered ring organotelluranes containing a Te-O bond were synthesized and characterized. Theoretical calculations elucidated the mechanism for the oxidation-cyclization processes involved in the formation of the heterocycles, consistent with chlorine transfer to hydroxy telluride, followed by a cyclization step with simultaneous formation of the new Te-O bond and deprotonation of the OH group. Moreover, theoretical calculations also indicated anti-diastereoisomers to be major products for two chirality center-containing compounds. Antileishmanial assays against Leishmania amazonensis promastigotes disclosed 1,2λ4 -oxatellurane LQ50 (IC50 =4.1±1.0; SI=12), 1,2λ4 -oxatellurolane LQ04 (IC50 =7.0±1.3; SI=7) and 1,2λ4 -benzoxatellurole LQ56 (IC50 =5.7±0.3; SI=6) as more powerful and more selective compounds than the reference, being up to four times more active. A stability study supported by 125 Te NMR analyses showed that these heterocycles do not suffer structural modifications in aqueous-organic media or at temperatures up to 65 °C.
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Affiliation(s)
- João Pedro A Souza
- Department of Chemistry, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Curitiba, PR, 81.931-480, Brazil
| | - Leociley R A Menezes
- Department of Chemistry, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Curitiba, PR, 81.931-480, Brazil
| | - Francielle P Garcia
- Health Sciences Center, Universidade Estadual de Maringá, Maringá, PR, 87.020-900, Brazil
| | - Débora B Scariot
- Health Sciences Center, Universidade Estadual de Maringá, Maringá, PR, 87.020-900, Brazil
| | - Pamela T Bandeira
- Department of Chemistry, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Curitiba, PR, 81.931-480, Brazil
| | - Mateus B Bespalhok
- Department of Chemistry, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Curitiba, PR, 81.931-480, Brazil
| | - Siddhartha O K Giese
- Department of Chemistry, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Curitiba, PR, 81.931-480, Brazil
| | - David L Hughes
- School of Chemistry, University of East Anglia, Norwich, NR4 7TJ, UK
| | - Celso V Nakamura
- Health Sciences Center, Universidade Estadual de Maringá, Maringá, PR, 87.020-900, Brazil
| | - Andersson Barison
- Department of Chemistry, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Curitiba, PR, 81.931-480, Brazil
| | - Alfredo R M Oliveira
- Department of Chemistry, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Curitiba, PR, 81.931-480, Brazil
| | - Renan B Campos
- Academic Department of Chemistry and Biology, Universidade Tecnológica Federal do Paraná, Curitiba, PR, 81.280-340, Brazil
| | - Leandro Piovan
- Department of Chemistry, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Curitiba, PR, 81.931-480, Brazil
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Barcellos AM, Sacramento M, da Costa GP, Perin G, João Lenardão E, Alves D. Organoboron compounds as versatile reagents in the transition metal-catalyzed C–S, C–Se and C–Te bond formation. Coord Chem Rev 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ccr.2021.214012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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Sacramento M, Costa GP, Barcellos AM, Perin G, Lenardão EJ, Alves D. Transition-metal-free C-S, C-Se, and C-Te Bond Formation from Organoboron Compounds. CHEM REC 2021; 21:2855-2879. [PMID: 33735500 DOI: 10.1002/tcr.202100021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2021] [Revised: 03/08/2021] [Accepted: 03/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
The present review describes the successful application of organoboron compounds in transition-metal-free C-S, C-Se, and C-Te bond formations. We presented studies regarding these C-Chalcogen bond formations using organoboron reagents, such as boronic acids, boronic esters, borate anions, and several sources of chalcogen atoms/moieties. Moreover, a broad range of transition-metal-free approaches to synthesize sulfides, selenides, and tellurides were described using conventional heating methods, which are sometimes green since they use green solvents, safe reagents, among others. Furthermore, protocols using alternative energy sources, including ultrasound, microwave irradiation, photocatalysis, and electrolytic processes, were also shown to be suitable. These protocols were applied to prepare a broad scope of functionalized chalcogenides with high molecular diversity. These studies and their proposed mechanisms were also reported herein in addition to the reuse of reaction promoters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manoela Sacramento
- Laboratório de Síntese Orgânica Limpa - LASOL, CCQFA, Universidade Federal de Pelotas - UFPel, P.O. Box 354, 96010-900, Pelotas, RS, Brazil
| | - Gabriel P Costa
- Laboratório de Síntese Orgânica Limpa - LASOL, CCQFA, Universidade Federal de Pelotas - UFPel, P.O. Box 354, 96010-900, Pelotas, RS, Brazil
| | - Angelita M Barcellos
- Laboratório de Síntese Orgânica Limpa - LASOL, CCQFA, Universidade Federal de Pelotas - UFPel, P.O. Box 354, 96010-900, Pelotas, RS, Brazil
| | - Gelson Perin
- Laboratório de Síntese Orgânica Limpa - LASOL, CCQFA, Universidade Federal de Pelotas - UFPel, P.O. Box 354, 96010-900, Pelotas, RS, Brazil
| | - Eder J Lenardão
- Laboratório de Síntese Orgânica Limpa - LASOL, CCQFA, Universidade Federal de Pelotas - UFPel, P.O. Box 354, 96010-900, Pelotas, RS, Brazil
| | - Diego Alves
- Laboratório de Síntese Orgânica Limpa - LASOL, CCQFA, Universidade Federal de Pelotas - UFPel, P.O. Box 354, 96010-900, Pelotas, RS, Brazil
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Alves MSD, das Neves RN, Sena-Lopes Â, Domingues M, Casaril AM, Segatto NV, Nogueira TCM, de Souza MVN, Savegnago L, Seixas FK, Collares T, Borsuk S. Antiparasitic activity of furanyl N-acylhydrazone derivatives against Trichomonas vaginalis: in vitro and in silico analyses. Parasit Vectors 2020; 13:59. [PMID: 32046788 PMCID: PMC7014680 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-020-3923-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2019] [Accepted: 02/01/2020] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Trichomonas vaginalis is the causative agent of trichomoniasis, which is one of the most common sexually transmitted diseases worldwide. Trichomoniasis has a high incidence and prevalence and is associated with serious complications such as HIV transmission and acquisition, pelvic inflammatory disease and preterm birth. Although trichomoniasis is treated with oral metronidazole (MTZ), the number of strains resistant to this drug is increasing (2.5-9.6%), leading to treatment failure. Therefore, there is an urgent need to find alternative drugs to combat this disease. METHODS Herein, we report the in vitro and in silico analysis of 12 furanyl N-acylhydrazone derivatives (PFUR 4, a-k) against Trichomonas vaginalis. Trichomonas vaginalis ATCC 30236 isolate was treated with seven concentrations of these compounds to determine the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and 50% inhibitory concentration (IC50). In addition, compounds that displayed anti-T. vaginalis activity were analyzed using thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) assay and molecular docking. Cytotoxicity analysis was also performed in CHO-K1 cells. RESULTS The compounds PFUR 4a and 4b, at 6.25 µM, induced complete parasite death after 24 h of exposure with IC50 of 1.69 µM and 1.98 µM, respectively. The results showed that lipid peroxidation is not involved in parasite death. Molecular docking studies predicted strong interactions of PFUR 4a and 4b with T. vaginalis enzymes, purine nucleoside phosphorylase, and lactate dehydrogenase, while only PFUR 4b interacted in silico with thioredoxin reductase and methionine gamma-lyase. PFUR 4a and 4b led to a growth inhibition (< 20%) in CHO-K1 cells that was comparable to the drug of choice, with a promising selectivity index (> 7.4). CONCLUSIONS Our results showed that PFUR 4a and 4b are promising molecules that can be used for the development of new trichomonacidal agents for T. vaginalis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mirna Samara Dié Alves
- Laboratório de Biotecnologia Infecto-parasitária, Centro de Desenvolvimento Tecnológico, Biotecnologia, UFPel, Pelotas, RS 96010-900 Brazil
| | - Raquel Nascimento das Neves
- Laboratório de Biotecnologia Infecto-parasitária, Centro de Desenvolvimento Tecnológico, Biotecnologia, UFPel, Pelotas, RS 96010-900 Brazil
| | - Ângela Sena-Lopes
- Laboratório de Biotecnologia Infecto-parasitária, Centro de Desenvolvimento Tecnológico, Biotecnologia, UFPel, Pelotas, RS 96010-900 Brazil
| | - Micaela Domingues
- Laboratório de Neurobiotecnologia, Centro de Desenvolvimento Tecnológico, Biotecnologia, UFPel, Pelotas, RS 96010-900 Brazil
| | - Angela Maria Casaril
- Laboratório de Neurobiotecnologia, Centro de Desenvolvimento Tecnológico, Biotecnologia, UFPel, Pelotas, RS 96010-900 Brazil
| | - Natália Vieira Segatto
- Laboratório de Biotecnologia do Câncer, Centro de Desenvolvimento Tecnológico, Biotecnologia, UFPel, Pelotas, RS 96010-900 Brazil
| | | | - Marcus Vinicius Nora de Souza
- Instituto de Tecnologia em Fármacos-Far-Manguinhos, Fiocruz-Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, RJ 21041-250 Brazil
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Química, Instituto de Química, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Cidade Universitária, Rio de Janeiro, RJ 21945-970 Brazil
| | - Lucielli Savegnago
- Laboratório de Neurobiotecnologia, Centro de Desenvolvimento Tecnológico, Biotecnologia, UFPel, Pelotas, RS 96010-900 Brazil
| | - Fabiana Kömmling Seixas
- Laboratório de Biotecnologia do Câncer, Centro de Desenvolvimento Tecnológico, Biotecnologia, UFPel, Pelotas, RS 96010-900 Brazil
| | - Tiago Collares
- Laboratório de Biotecnologia do Câncer, Centro de Desenvolvimento Tecnológico, Biotecnologia, UFPel, Pelotas, RS 96010-900 Brazil
| | - Sibele Borsuk
- Laboratório de Biotecnologia Infecto-parasitária, Centro de Desenvolvimento Tecnológico, Biotecnologia, UFPel, Pelotas, RS 96010-900 Brazil
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11
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das Neves RN, Sena-Lopes Â, Alves MSD, da Rocha Fonseca B, da Silva CC, Casaril AM, Savegnago L, de Pereira CMP, Ramos DF, Borsuk S. 2'-Hydroxychalcones as an alternative treatment for trichomoniasis in association with metronidazole. Parasitol Res 2019; 119:725-736. [PMID: 31853622 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-019-06568-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2019] [Accepted: 11/26/2019] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
The treatment for trichomoniasis, based on 5'-nitroimidazol agents, has been presenting failures related to allergic reactions, side effects, and the emergence of resistant isolates. There are no alternative drugs approved for the treatment of these cases; thus, the search for new active molecules is necessary. In this scenario, chalcones have been extensively studied for their promising biological activities. Here, we presented the synthesis of three hydroxychalcones (3a, b, and c), in vitro and in silico analyses against Trichomonas vaginalis. The in vitro biological evaluation showed that hydroxychalcone 3c presented anti-T. vaginalis activity, with complete death in 12 h of incubation at minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of 100 μM. 3c showed a dose-dependent cytotoxicity against mammalian VERO cell line, but the association of 3c at 12.5 μM and metronidazole (MTZ) at 40 μM showed 95.31% activity against T. vaginalis trophozoites after 24 h of exposure and did not affect the VERO cell growth, appearing to be a good alternative. In silico analysis by molecular docking showed that 3c could inhibit the activity of TvMGL (methionine gamma-lyase), TvLDH (lactate dehydrogenase), and TvPNP (purine nucleoside phosphorylase) affecting the T. vaginalis survival and also suggesting a different mechanism of action from MTZ. Therefore, these results propose that hydroxychalcones are promising anti-T. vaginalis agents and must be considered for further investigations regarding trichomoniasis treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raquel Nascimento das Neves
- Laboratório de Biotecnologia Infecto-parasitária, Centro de Desenvolvimento Tecnológico, Biotecnologia, UFPel, Campus Universitário s/n, Prédio 19 -, Pelotas, RS, 96010-900, Brazil
| | - Ângela Sena-Lopes
- Laboratório de Biotecnologia Infecto-parasitária, Centro de Desenvolvimento Tecnológico, Biotecnologia, UFPel, Campus Universitário s/n, Prédio 19 -, Pelotas, RS, 96010-900, Brazil
| | - Mirna Samara Dié Alves
- Laboratório de Biotecnologia Infecto-parasitária, Centro de Desenvolvimento Tecnológico, Biotecnologia, UFPel, Campus Universitário s/n, Prédio 19 -, Pelotas, RS, 96010-900, Brazil
| | - Bárbara da Rocha Fonseca
- Laboratório de Biotecnologia Infecto-parasitária, Centro de Desenvolvimento Tecnológico, Biotecnologia, UFPel, Campus Universitário s/n, Prédio 19 -, Pelotas, RS, 96010-900, Brazil
| | - Caroline Carapina da Silva
- Laboratório de Lipidômica e Bio-orgânicass, Grupo de Ciências Químicas Farmacêuticas e de Alimentos, UFPel, Pelotas, RS, Brazil
| | - Angela Maria Casaril
- Laboratório de Neurobiotecnologia, Centro de Desenvolvimento Tecnológico, Biotecnologia, UFPel, Pelotas, RS, Brazil
| | - Lucielli Savegnago
- Laboratório de Neurobiotecnologia, Centro de Desenvolvimento Tecnológico, Biotecnologia, UFPel, Pelotas, RS, Brazil
| | | | - Daniela Fernandes Ramos
- Núcleo de Pesquisa em Microbiologia Médica, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande, FURG, Rio Grande, RS, Brazil
| | - Sibele Borsuk
- Laboratório de Biotecnologia Infecto-parasitária, Centro de Desenvolvimento Tecnológico, Biotecnologia, UFPel, Campus Universitário s/n, Prédio 19 -, Pelotas, RS, 96010-900, Brazil.
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12
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Lopes EF, Penteado F, Thurow S, Pinz M, Reis AS, Wilhelm EA, Luchese C, Barcellos T, Dalberto B, Alves D, da Silva MS, Lenardão EJ. Synthesis of Isoxazolines by the Electrophilic Chalcogenation of β,γ-Unsaturated Oximes: Fishing Novel Anti-Inflammatory Agents. J Org Chem 2019; 84:12452-12462. [PMID: 31509698 DOI: 10.1021/acs.joc.9b01754] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Herein, we describe a new strategy to prepare chalcogen-functionalized isoxazolines. The strategy involves the reaction of β,γ-unsaturated oximes with electrophilic selenium and tellurium species, affording 19 new selenium- and tellurium-containing isoxazolines in good yields after 1 h at room temperature. The method was efficiently extended to the synthesis of 5 new (bis)isoxazoline ditellurides. One of the prepared compounds, 3-phenyl-5-((phenylselanyl)methyl)-isoxazoline, demonstrated better anti-inflammatory and antiedematogenic effects than the reference drug Celecoxib.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric F Lopes
- Laboratório de Síntese Orgânica Limpa-LASOL-CCQFA , Universidade Federal de Pelotas-UFPel , P.O. Box 354, 96010-900 Pelotas , RS , Brazil
| | - Filipe Penteado
- Laboratório de Síntese Orgânica Limpa-LASOL-CCQFA , Universidade Federal de Pelotas-UFPel , P.O. Box 354, 96010-900 Pelotas , RS , Brazil
| | - Samuel Thurow
- Laboratório de Síntese Orgânica Limpa-LASOL-CCQFA , Universidade Federal de Pelotas-UFPel , P.O. Box 354, 96010-900 Pelotas , RS , Brazil
| | - Mikaela Pinz
- Laboratório de Pesquisa em Farmacologia Bioquímica-LaFarBio-CCQFA , Universidade Federal de Pelotas-UFPel , P.O. Box 354, 96010-900 Pelotas , RS , Brazil
| | - Angelica S Reis
- Laboratório de Pesquisa em Farmacologia Bioquímica-LaFarBio-CCQFA , Universidade Federal de Pelotas-UFPel , P.O. Box 354, 96010-900 Pelotas , RS , Brazil
| | - Ethel A Wilhelm
- Laboratório de Pesquisa em Farmacologia Bioquímica-LaFarBio-CCQFA , Universidade Federal de Pelotas-UFPel , P.O. Box 354, 96010-900 Pelotas , RS , Brazil
| | - Cristiane Luchese
- Laboratório de Pesquisa em Farmacologia Bioquímica-LaFarBio-CCQFA , Universidade Federal de Pelotas-UFPel , P.O. Box 354, 96010-900 Pelotas , RS , Brazil
| | - Thiago Barcellos
- Laboratory of Biotechnology of Natural and Synthetic Products , Universidade de Caxias do Sul-UCS , 95070-560 Caxias do Sul , RS , Brazil
| | - Bianca Dalberto
- Laboratório de Síntese Orgânica Limpa-LASOL-CCQFA , Universidade Federal de Pelotas-UFPel , P.O. Box 354, 96010-900 Pelotas , RS , Brazil
| | - Diego Alves
- Laboratório de Síntese Orgânica Limpa-LASOL-CCQFA , Universidade Federal de Pelotas-UFPel , P.O. Box 354, 96010-900 Pelotas , RS , Brazil
| | - Marcio S da Silva
- Laboratório de Síntese Orgânica Limpa-LASOL-CCQFA , Universidade Federal de Pelotas-UFPel , P.O. Box 354, 96010-900 Pelotas , RS , Brazil
| | - Eder J Lenardão
- Laboratório de Síntese Orgânica Limpa-LASOL-CCQFA , Universidade Federal de Pelotas-UFPel , P.O. Box 354, 96010-900 Pelotas , RS , Brazil
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13
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Goulart HA, Neto JSS, Barcellos AM, Barcellos T, Silva MS, Alves D, Jacob RG, Lenardão EJ, Perin G. Synthesis of 5
H
‐Selenopheno[3,2‐
c
]isochromen‐5‐ones Promoted by Dialkyl Diselenides and Oxone®. Adv Synth Catal 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/adsc.201900288] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Helen A. Goulart
- LASOL-CCQFA-Universidade Federal de Pelotas-UFPel P.O. Box 354-96010-900 Pelotas, RS Brazil
| | - José S. S. Neto
- LASOL-CCQFA-Universidade Federal de Pelotas-UFPel P.O. Box 354-96010-900 Pelotas, RS Brazil
| | - Angelita M. Barcellos
- LASOL-CCQFA-Universidade Federal de Pelotas-UFPel P.O. Box 354-96010-900 Pelotas, RS Brazil
| | - Thiago Barcellos
- Laboratory of Biotechnology of Natural and Synthetic ProductsUniversidade de Caxias do Sul, Caxias do Sul, RS Brazil
| | - Márcio S. Silva
- LASOL-CCQFA-Universidade Federal de Pelotas-UFPel P.O. Box 354-96010-900 Pelotas, RS Brazil
| | - Diego Alves
- LASOL-CCQFA-Universidade Federal de Pelotas-UFPel P.O. Box 354-96010-900 Pelotas, RS Brazil
| | - Raquel G. Jacob
- LASOL-CCQFA-Universidade Federal de Pelotas-UFPel P.O. Box 354-96010-900 Pelotas, RS Brazil
| | - Eder J. Lenardão
- LASOL-CCQFA-Universidade Federal de Pelotas-UFPel P.O. Box 354-96010-900 Pelotas, RS Brazil
| | - Gelson Perin
- LASOL-CCQFA-Universidade Federal de Pelotas-UFPel P.O. Box 354-96010-900 Pelotas, RS Brazil
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14
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Fonseca TH, Gomes JM, Alacoque M, Vannier-Santos MA, Gomes MA, Busatti HG. Transmission electron microscopy revealing the mechanism of action of photodynamic therapy on Trichomonas vaginalis. Acta Trop 2019; 190:112-118. [PMID: 30447179 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2018.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2018] [Revised: 10/18/2018] [Accepted: 11/06/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Trichomonas vaginalis is an amitochondrial parasite that causes human trichomoniasis. Despite metronidazole effectiveness, resistant cases are becoming more frequent. This scenario reveals the need to develop new therapeutic options. Photodynamic Therapy (PDT) is an experimental treatment that involves the activation of photosensitive substances and the generation of cytotoxic oxygen species and free radicals to promote the selective destruction of target tissues. In previous work, we identified an excellent in vitro PDT activity using methylene blue and light emitting diode against metronidazole sensitive and resistant strains of T. vaginalis. Here, we evaluated the efficacy of PDT in vivo and its high trichomonicidal activity was assessed through transmission electron microscopy. Female Balb/c mice were infected intravaginally with T. vaginalis trophozoites. On the third day of infection, methylene blue was introduced into the vaginal canal, which then received 68.1 J/cm2 of radiation for 35.6 s. Twenty-four hours after treatment the vaginal canal of the animals was scraped and the samples processed by the immunocytochemistry technique. Besides that, in vitro photodynamic treatment was performed and T. vaginalis trophozoites were processed by transmission electron microscopy. PDT significantly reduced infection in animals treated, compared to control groups, being as efficient as metronidazole. Morphological changes observed have suggested that PDT activity on T. vaginalis was due to necrosis. These results, added to the high trichomonicidal activity of PDT confirm its feasibility for trichomoniasis treatment.
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15
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do Sacramento M, Menezes L, Goldani B, Perin G, Silva MS, Barcellos T, Alves D. Synthesis of alkynyltellurides mediated by K 3PO 4 and DMSO. NEW J CHEM 2019. [DOI: 10.1039/c9nj01995b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The reaction of diorganyl ditellurides with terminal alkynes is described using K3PO4 as a catalyst.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Larissa Menezes
- Laboratório de Síntese Orgânica Limpa
- LASOL
- CCQFA
- Universidade Federal de Pelotas
- UFPel
| | - Bruna Goldani
- Laboratório de Síntese Orgânica Limpa
- LASOL
- CCQFA
- Universidade Federal de Pelotas
- UFPel
| | - Gelson Perin
- Laboratório de Síntese Orgânica Limpa
- LASOL
- CCQFA
- Universidade Federal de Pelotas
- UFPel
| | - Marcio S. Silva
- Laboratório de Síntese Orgânica Limpa
- LASOL
- CCQFA
- Universidade Federal de Pelotas
- UFPel
| | - Thiago Barcellos
- Laboratory of Biotechnology of Natural and Synthetic Products
- University of Caxias do Sul
- Caxias do Sul
- Brazil
| | - Diego Alves
- Laboratório de Síntese Orgânica Limpa
- LASOL
- CCQFA
- Universidade Federal de Pelotas
- UFPel
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16
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Carapina da Silva C, Pacheco BS, das Neves RN, Dié Alves MS, Sena-Lopes Â, Moura S, Borsuk S, de Pereira CMP. Antiparasitic activity of synthetic curcumin monocarbonyl analogues against Trichomonas vaginalis. Biomed Pharmacother 2018; 111:367-377. [PMID: 30594049 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2018.12.058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2018] [Revised: 11/25/2018] [Accepted: 12/14/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Trichomoniasis is a parasitic infection caused by Trichomonas vaginalis and it is considered to be the most common non-viral sexually transmitted infection in the world. Since the 1960s, nitroimidazoles such as metronidazole are the drugs of choice for the treatment of trichomoniasis, but many adverse effects and allergic reactions may result from their use. Reports of metronidazole-resistant infections also highlight the importance for the search of new anti-T. vaginalis agents. Considering this, herein we report the anti-T. vaginalis evaluation of 21 synthetic monocarbonyl analogues of curcumin, which itself has been reported to possess antiparasitic potential. From the in vitro analysis of the synthetic molecules, untreated trophozoites, and metronidazole at 100 μM, it was observed that three curcumin analogues (3a, 3e, and 5e) exhibited anti-T. vaginalis activity comparable to metronidazole (no significant statistical difference). Optimal antiparasitic concentrations were determined to be 80 μM and 90 μM for propanone derivatives 3a and 3e, respectively, and 200 μM for cyclohexanone derivative 5e. Kinetic growth curves showed that, after 24 h, the trophozoites were completely inhibited. At the tested concentrations, natural curcumin did not significantly inhibit the growth of trophozoites, therefore demonstrating that the designed synthetic molecules not only have better chemical stability, but also higher anti-T. vaginalis potential. Cytotoxicity analysis, performed on VERO cells, demonstrated low, moderate and high cytotoxic effects for analogues 3e, 5e and 3a, respectively. This study suggests that these analogues possess chemical features of interest to be further explored as alternatives for the treatment of trichomoniasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline Carapina da Silva
- Laboratory of Lipidomics and Bioorganic, Bioforensics Research Group, Federal University of Pelotas, RS, 96010-900, Brazil.
| | - Bruna Silveira Pacheco
- Laboratory of Lipidomics and Bioorganic, Bioforensics Research Group, Federal University of Pelotas, RS, 96010-900, Brazil
| | | | - Mirna Samara Dié Alves
- Laboratory of Infecto-parasitic Biotechnology, Federal University of Pelotas, RS, 96010-900, Brazil
| | - Ângela Sena-Lopes
- Laboratory of Infecto-parasitic Biotechnology, Federal University of Pelotas, RS, 96010-900, Brazil
| | - Sidnei Moura
- Laboratory of Biotechnology of Natural and Synthetic Products, Biotechnology Institute, University of Caxias do Sul, RS, 95020260, Brazil
| | - Sibele Borsuk
- Laboratory of Infecto-parasitic Biotechnology, Federal University of Pelotas, RS, 96010-900, Brazil
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17
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Küng E, Fürnkranz U, Walochnik J. Chemotherapeutic options for the treatment of human trichomoniasis. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2018; 53:116-127. [PMID: 30612993 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2018.10.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2018] [Revised: 10/11/2018] [Accepted: 10/20/2018] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Trichomonas vaginalis is the causative agent of the most common non-viral sexually transmitted disease worldwide. The infection may be associated with severe complications, including infertility, preterm labour, cancer and an increased risk of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) transmission. Treatment remains almost exclusively based on 5-nitroimidazoles, but resistance is on the rise. This article provides an overview of clinically evaluated systemic and topical treatment options for human trichomoniasis and summarises the current state of knowledge on various herbal, semisynthetic and synthetic compounds evaluated for their anti-Trichomonas efficacy in vitro.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erik Küng
- Institute of Specific Prophylaxis and Tropical Medicine, Centre for Pathophysiology, Infectiology and Immunology, Medical University of Vienna, Kinderspitalgasse 15, A-1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Ursula Fürnkranz
- Institute of Specific Prophylaxis and Tropical Medicine, Centre for Pathophysiology, Infectiology and Immunology, Medical University of Vienna, Kinderspitalgasse 15, A-1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Julia Walochnik
- Institute of Specific Prophylaxis and Tropical Medicine, Centre for Pathophysiology, Infectiology and Immunology, Medical University of Vienna, Kinderspitalgasse 15, A-1090 Vienna, Austria.
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