The effects of β-caryophyllene oxide and trans-nerolidol on the efficacy of doxorubicin in breast cancer cells and breast tumor-bearing mice

Nerolidol, Bioactive Compound Suppress Growth of HCT-116 Colorectal Cancer Cells Through Cell Cycle Arrest and Induction of Apoptosis

Colon cancer is the most prevalent cancer and causes the highest cancer-associated mortality in both men and women globally. It has a high incidence and fatality rate, which places a significant burden on the healthcare system. The current work was performed to understand the beneficial roles of nerolidol on the viability and cytotoxic mechanisms in the colon cancer HCT-116 cells. The MTT cytotoxicity assay was done to investigate the effect of nerolidol at different doses (5-100 µM) on the HCT-116 cell viability. The impacts of nerolidol on ROS accumulation and apoptosis were investigated using DCFH-DA, DAPI, and dual staining assays, respectively. The flow cytometry analysis was performed to study the influence of nerolidol on the cell cycle arrest in the HCT-116 cells. The outcomes of the MTT assay demonstrated that nerolidol at different doses (5-100 µM) substantially inhibited the HCT-116 cell viability with an IC50 level of 25 µM. The treatment with nerolidol appreciably boosted the ROS level in the HCT-116 cells. The findings of DAPI and dual staining revealed higher apoptotic incidences in the nerolidol-exposed HCT-116 cells, which supports its ability to stimulate apoptosis. The flow cytometry analysis demonstrated the considerable inhibition in cell cycle at the G0/G1 phase in the nerolidol-exposed HCT-116 cells. Our research showed that nerolidol can inhibit the cell cycle, increase ROS accumulation, and activate apoptosis in HCT-116 cells. In light of this, it may prove to be a potent and salutary candidate to treat colon cancer.

β-Caryophyllene Inhibits Oxaliplatin-Induced Peripheral Neuropathy in Mice: Role of Cannabinoid Type 2 Receptors, Oxidative Stress and Neuroinflammation

Peripheral neuropathy is an important adverse effect caused by some chemotherapeutic agents, including oxaliplatin (OXA). OXA-induced peripheral neuropathy (OIPN) is a challenging condition due to diagnostic complexities and a lack of effective treatment. In this study, we investigated the antiallodynic effect of β-caryophyllene (BCP), a cannabinoid type 2 (CB2) receptor agonist, in a mouse model of OIPN. BCP treatment inhibited OXA-induced mechanical and cold allodynia in both preventive and therapeutic drug treatment regimens. Experiments with the CB2 receptor agonist GW405833 confirmed the role of CB2 receptors in OIPN. The CB2 antagonist SR144528 abrogated the anti-nociceptive effect of BCP on mechanical allodynia, without impacting OXA-induced sensitivity to cold. BCP decreased neuroinflammation, as inferred from TNF, IL-1β, IL-6, and IL-10 profiling, and also reduced ROS production, lipid peroxidation, and 4-hydroxynonenal protein adduct formation in the spinal cords of OXA-treated mice. BCP did not affect the antitumor response to OXA or its impact on blood cell counts, implying that the cytotoxicity of OXA was preserved. These results underscore BCP as a candidate drug for OIPN treatment via CB2 receptor-dependent mechanisms, and anti-inflammatory and antioxidant responses in the spinal cord.

ERRα contributes to HDAC6-induced chemoresistance of osteosarcoma cells

Chemotherapy resistance is an important problem for clinical therapy of osteosarcoma (OS). The potential effects of histone deacetylases (HDACs) on OS chemoresistance are studied. The expression of HDACs in OS cells resistance to doxorubicin (Dox) and cisplatin (CDDP) is checked. Among 11 members of HDACs, levels of HDAC6 are significantly upregulated in OS cells resistance to Dox and CDDP. Inhibition of HDAC6 via its specific inhibitor ACY1215 restores chemosensitivity of OS-resistant cells. Further, HDAC6 directly binds with estrogen-related receptors alpha (ERRα) to regulate its acetylation and protein stability. Inhibition of ERRα further strengthens ACY1215-increased chemosensitivity of OS-resistant cells. Mechanistically, K129 acetylation is the key residue for HDAC6-regulated protein levels of ERRα. Collectively, we find that ERRα contributes to HDAC6-induced chemoresistance of OS cells. Inhibition of HDAC6/ERRα axis might be a potential approach to overcome chemoresistance and improve therapy efficiency for OS treatment. 1. HDAC6 was significantly upregulated in Dox and CDDP resistant OS cells; 2. Inhibition of HDAC6 can restore chemosensitivity of OS cells; 3. HDAC6 binds with ERRα at K129 to decrease its acetylation and increase protein stability; 4. ERRα contributes to HDAC6-induced chemoresistance of OS cells.

β-caryophyllene oxide induces apoptosis and inhibits proliferation of A549 lung cancer cells

One of the most common cancers that result in death is lung cancer. There is new hope in the fight against lung cancer thanks to the chemopreventive properties of natural dietary substances like β-caryophyllene oxide (CPO), and research is currently being done to test this theory. CPO, a sesquiterpene isolated from medicinal plant essential oils, inhibits carcinogenesis and has been effective in treating many cancers. This study examined how CPO affected proliferation of human lung cancer A549 cells. CPO was found to have an inhibitory concentration (IC50) of 124.1 g/ml. The proliferative markers Ki67 and PCNA were significantly inhibited after cells were treated with CPO at a concentration of 50 g/ml compared to controls. CPO-treated cells expressed more P21, P53, and DNA strand breaks than controls. This was accompanied by a significant cell cycle arrest in the S and G2/M phases. In treated A549 cells, this was also associated with a significant induction of apoptosis, as shown by the upregulation of the expression of caspases 3, 7, and 9, as well as Bax, and the downregulation of Bcl-2. Furthermore, the redox status of treated A549 cells revealed a marked rise in GSH and GPx activity levels and a decline in 4-HNE levels, indicating low oxidative stress following CPO treatment of A549 cells. In conclusion, cell cycle arrest and apoptosis, which are unrelated to oxidative stress, were the mechanisms by which CPO reduced cancer lung cell growth. This finding might be a potential therapeutic target for the treatment of lung cancer. Hypothetical scheme of CPO anticancer effects (mechanism of signaling) in A549 cells; in vitro. CPO treatment increases expression of p21, p53 and DNA fragmentation. These events cause arrest of cell cycle which was associated with significant induction in apoptosis via increase expression of caspases (-3,-7,-9), and Bax and downregulation of Bcl-2.

Potential cardioprotective and anticancer effects of carvedilol either free or as loaded nanoparticles with or without doxorubicin in solid Ehrlich carcinoma-bearing mice

AIM

The aim of this study was to investigate the potential cardioprotective and anti-cancer effects of carvedilol (CAR) either free or as loaded nano-formulated with or without doxorubicin (DOX) in solid Ehrlich carcinoma (SEC)-bearing mice. It focused on assessment of cardiac damage, drug resistance, apoptosis, oxidative stress status, angiogenesis and proliferation.

METHODS

CAR was loaded into poly-D,L lactic-co-glycolic acid)PLGA(or Niosomes. SEC was induced in female albino mice as an experimental model of breast cancer. Seventy-two mice were randomly divided into 9 equal groups (Normal control, Untreated-SEC, SEC + DOX, SEC + CAR-free, SEC + CAR-PLGA, SEC + CAR-Niosomes, SEC + DOX + CAR-free, SEC + DOX + CAR-PLGA and SEC + DOX + CAR-Niosomes). Tumor volume and survival rate were recorded. On day 28 from tumor inoculation, mice were sacrificed, and blood samples were collected for determination of serum lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) and creatine kinase-MB (CK-MB). One part from tumor tissues was prepared for assessment of multidrug resistance protein-1 (MDR-1), caspase-3, reduced glutathione (GSH) and malondialdehyde (MDA), while the other part was processed for histopathological examination and immunohistochemical expression of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and Ki-67.

RESULTS

There was non-significant difference between CAR-free, CAR-PLGA and CAR-Niosomes as anticancer either alone or when combined with DOX. However, CAR-free demonstrated potential cardioprotective effects against cardiac damage mediated by cancer or DOX that have been enhanced using CAR-PLGA or CAR-Niosomes, but that of Niosomes outperformed them both.

CONCLUSION

CAR could be used as an adjuvant therapy with DOX, especially when nanoformualted with PLGA and even better with Niosomes, without compromising its cytotoxicity against cancer cells and preventing its cardiotoxic impacts.

Determination of variability of terpenes and terpenoids in Cannabis sativa by gas chromatography-flame ionization detection and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry

Absolute content of terpenes in inflorescences of two strains of Cannabis sativa L., CAT 1 and CAT 3, has been determined. Twenty terpenes commonly present in these samples were quantified by solid phase microextraction combined with gas chromatography and flame ionization detection (SPME/GC-FID). High amounts of β-myrcene, α-pinene, β-pinene, limonene, (E)-β-ocimene, β-caryophyllene, α-humulene, (E)-nerolidol, and linalool, were found in both strains. Lower concentrations (< 20 µg·g^-1) of other terpenes were also determined. Only (E)-β-ocimene was detected at 50 µg·g^-1 in CAT 3 whereas it was below the LOD in CAT 1. Concentrations of other compounds for which standards were not available, were estimated based on a response factor obtained from the calibration curves of compounds with similar chemical structures. Fingerprints of both CAT strains were obtained and the identities of most volatile compounds were assigned using gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometer detector (GC-MS). Additionally, an assessment of variability of terpenes was achieved by analyzing ten plants of each strain grown under controlled conditions and harvested at the same time. This variability was about 20%, considering terpenes at concentration above 20 µg·g^-1.

Enhancing Trans-Nerolidol Productivity in Yarrowia lipolytica by Improving Precursor Supply and Optimizing Nerolidol Synthase Activity

The low enzymatic capability of terpene synthases and the limited availability of precursors often hinder the productivity of terpenes in microbial hosts. Herein, a systematic approach combining protein engineering and pathway compartmentation was exploited in Yarrowia lipolytica for the high-efficient production of trans-nerolidol, a sesquiterpene with various commercial applications. Through the single-gene overexpression, the reaction catalyzed by nerolidol synthase (FaNES1) was identified as another rate-limiting step. An optimized FaNES1^G498Q was then designed by rational protein engineering using homology modeling and docking studies. Additionally, further improvement of trans-nerolidol production was observed as enhancing the expression of an endogenous carnitine acetyltransferase (CAT2) putatively responsible for acetyl-CoA shuttling between peroxisome and cytosol. To harness the peroxisomal acetyl-CoA pool, a parallel peroxisomal pathway starting with acetyl-CoA to trans-nerolidol was engineered. Finally, the highest reported titer of 11.1 g/L trans-nerolidol in the Y. lipolytica platform was achieved in 5 L fed-batch fermentation with the carbon restriction approach.

Nerolidol assists Cisplatin to induce early apoptosis in human laryngeal carcinoma Hep 2 cells through ROS and mitochondrial-mediated pathway: An in vitro and in silico view

The objective of this study was to examine Nerolidol (NER) and Cisplatin (CIS) performed against human laryngeal carcinoma (Hep 2) cells. We evaluated the effect of NER, CIS, and NER + CIS on cell viability, cell migration, oxidative stress, mitochondrial membrane depolarization, nuclear condensation, apoptotic induction, and DNA damage in Hep 2 cells. We used the MTT assay to assess the cytotoxicity effect of NER and CIS on Hep 2 cells in terms of morphological alterations. Present results demonstrated that IC₅₀ values of NER and CIS have potential cytotoxicity against Hep 2 cells. NER effectively inhibited cell viability, increased reactive oxygen species generation, apoptotic induction, and DNA damage in Hep 2 cells. In addition, the docking study evaluated the structural binding interaction of NER with PI3K/Akt and PCNA protein. Furthermore, NER with PI3K/Akt, PCNA has a higher crucial score and affinity. Present results infer that NER could be used to target signaling molecules in anticancer studies. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Nerolidol is a dietary phytochemical with high biological activity that can find in a variety of plants. Many researchers focused on Nerolidol to treat various diseases including cancer. However, there is no studies exist on laryngeal cancer. This study uses Nerolidol and Cisplatin to generate oxidative stress and stimulate apoptosis and DNA damage in human laryngeal cancer cells. Based on present findings, Nerolidol could be a choice of anticancer medication, either alone or in combination against oral squamous cell carcinomas in both in vitro and in vivo experimental systems.

Role of Medicinal plant-derived Nutraceuticals as a potential target for the treatment of breast cancer

Breast cancer (BC) is one of the most challenging cancers to treat, accounting for many cancer-related deaths. Over some years, chemotherapy, hormone treatment, radiation, and surgeries have been used to treat cancer. Unfortunately, these treatment options are unsuccessful due to crucial adverse reactions and multidrug tolerance/resistance. Although it is clear that substances in the nutraceuticals category have a lot of anti-cancer activity, using a supplementary therapy strategy, in this case, could be very beneficial. Nutraceuticals are therapeutic agents, which are nutrients that have drug-like characteristics and can be used to treat diseases. Plant nutraceuticals categorized into polyphenols, terpenoids, vitamins, alkaloids, and flavonoids are part of health food products, that have great potential for combating BC. Nutraceuticals can reduce BC's severity, limit malignant cell growth, and modify cancer-related mechanisms. Nutraceuticals acting by attenuating Hedgehog, Nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB), Notch, and Wnt/β-catenin signaling are the main pathways in controlling the self-renewal of breast cancer stem cells (BCSCs). This article reviews some important nutraceuticals and their modes of action, which can be very powerful versus BC. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Nutraceuticals' importance to the control and diagnosis of breast cancer is undeniable and cannot be overlooked. Natural dietary compounds have a wide range of uses and have been used in traditional medicine. In addition, these natural chemicals can enhance the effectiveness of other traditional medicines. They may also be used as a treatment process independently because of their capacity to affect several cancer pathways. This study highlights a variety of natural chemicals, and their mechanisms of action, routes, synergistic effects, and future potentials are all examined.

Use of Cannabis and Cannabinoids for Treatment of Cancer

The endocannabinoid system (ECS) is an ancient homeostasis mechanism operating from embryonic stages to adulthood. It controls the growth and development of many cells and cell lineages. Dysregulation of the components of the ECS may result in uncontrolled proliferation, adhesion, invasion, inhibition of apoptosis and increased vascularization, leading to the development of various malignancies. Cancer is the disease of uncontrolled cell division. In this review, we will discuss whether the changes to the ECS are a cause or a consequence of malignization and whether different tissues react differently to changes in the ECS. We will discuss the potential use of cannabinoids for treatment of cancer, focusing on primary outcome/care-tumor shrinkage and eradication, as well as secondary outcome/palliative care-improvement of life quality, including pain, appetite, sleep, and many more factors. Finally, we will complete this review with the chapter on sex- and gender-specific differences in ECS and response to cannabinoids, and equality of the access to treatments with cannabinoids.

Natural products as chemo-radiation therapy sensitizers in cancers

Cancer is a devastating disease and is the second leading cause of death worldwide. Surgery, chemotherapy (CT), and/or radiation therapy (RT) are the treatment of choice for most advanced tumors. Unfortunately, treatment failure due to intrinsic and acquired resistance to the current CT and RT is a significant challenge associated with poor patient prognosis. There is an urgent need to develop and identify agents that can sensitize tumor cells to chemo-radiation therapy (CRT) with minimal cytotoxicity to the healthy tissues. While many recent studies have identified the underlying molecular mechanisms and therapeutic targets for CRT failure, using small molecule inhibitors to chemo/radio sensitize tumors is associated with high toxicity and increased morbidity. Natural products have long been used as chemopreventive agents in many cancers. Combining many of these compounds with the standard chemotherapeutic agents or with RT has shown synergistic effects on cancer cell death and overall improvement in patient survival. Based on the available data, there is strong evidence that natural products have a robust therapeutic potential along with CRT and their well-known chemopreventive effects in many solid tumors. This review article reports updated literature on different natural products used as CT or RT sensitizers in many solid tumors. This is the first review discussing CT and RT sensitizers together in cancer.

Preliminary Study on Phytochemical Constituents and Biological Activities of Essential Oil from Myriactis nepalensis Less

In response to the need for novel therapeutic strategies to combat the development of microbial resistance, plant essential oils may represent a promising alternative source. This study set out to characterize the chemical composition and assess the antibacterial potential of Myriactis nepalensis Less. essential oil (MNEO). Essential oil isolated from M. nepalensis by hydrodistillation was analyzed using a GC–MS technique. The antibacterial properties of MNEO alone and combined with antibiotics (chloramphenicol and streptomycin) were tested via the disc diffusion, microbroth dilution, and checkerboard methods. MNEO was represented by oxygenated sesquiterpenes (60.3%) and sesquiterpene hydrocarbons (28.6%), with caryophyllene oxide, spathulenol, humulene epoxide II, β-elemene, neointermedeol, and β-caryophyllene as the main compounds. MNEO exhibited a strong antibacterial effect against Gram-positive bacteria, with MIC and MBC values of 0.039 mg/mL and 0.039–0.156 mg/mL, respectively, and synergistic effects were observed in both combinations with chloramphenicol and streptomycin. Furthermore, the antibiofilm and cytotoxic activities of MNEO were also evaluated. The crystal violet assay was used for quantification of Staphylococcus aureus biofilm formation, and an MTT (3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl tetrazolium bromide) assay was conducted to determine cell viability. The results revealed MNEO could dose-dependently inhibit Staphylococcus aureus biofilm formation and possessed potential cytotoxic on both normal and cancer cells (IC50 values from 13.13 ± 1.90 to 35.22 ± 8.36 μg/mL). Overall, the results indicate that MNEO may have promising applications in the field of bacterial infections.

Nerolidol induced apoptosis via PI3K/JNK regulation through cell cycle arrest in MG-63 osteosarcoma cells

The aim of the present study was to determine the cell proliferation, apoptotic pathway analysis through protein, mRNA and cell cycle arrest mechanism in nerolidol induced osteosarcoma MG-63 cells. The osteosarcoma MG-63 cells were treated with various doses of nerolidol (15 and 20 μM/ml) for 24 h. Cell proliferation was examined using assist method of MTT assay, fixed the IC50 value of nerolidol 15 μM/ml. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation was analyzed by DCFH-DA dye, mitochondrial potential detected by Rh-123 dye, apoptotic morphological changes identified by AO/EtBr, PI, DAPI staining, and cell adhesion were detected by using fluorescence microscope. Cell proliferation, and apoptotic molecular protein and mRNA expressions such as ERK, P38, p-PI3K, p-JNK, Bcl-2, JNK, p-P38, cyclin-D1, and Bax were analyzed in osteosarcoma MG-63 cells. Nerolidol significantly suppressed the osteosarcoma cells progression in a dose dependent manner (p < .05) evident in the oxidative stress induction and apoptotic morphological changes. Nerolidol also regulated the protein PI3K/AKT mechanistically via induction of apoptosis Nerolidol suppresses osteosarcoma MG-63 cells by PI3K/AKT by cell cycle arrest at early phase of G0/G1. To sum up, nerolidol suppressed the growth of bone cancer cells and can be finally targeted as a potent drug for analyzing its chemotherapeutic effects in future.

A mechanistic review on immunomodulatory effects of selective type two cannabinoid receptor β-caryophyllene

β-Caryophyllene (BCP) is a plant-derived compound and occurs naturally in various foods and spices, including cinnamon, citrus, fruits, clove, curry, and pepper. BCP showed different pharmacological effects, such as antioxidant and antimicrobial properties. This article tried to gather updated knowledge of the anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and immunomodulatory effects of BCP and searched using various databases and appropriate keywords until April 2022. Several studies showed that the anti-inflammatory effects of BCP are mainly provided through cannabinoid receptor 2 (CB₂ ) receptor activation and the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) γ pathway. It has also been demonstrated that BCP suppresses both protein and mRNA expression levels of interleukin (IL)-6 and reduces relevant proinflammatory cytokines but increases the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-13. Previous results indicated that the antioxidant effects of β-caryophyllene were suggested through different pathways, including activation of nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor-2 (Nrf2)/heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1)/antioxidant axis and inhibition of the HMG-CoA reductase activity, and oxidative stress biomarkers levels. Furthermore, various results showed immunomodulatory effects of BCP through inhibiting microglial cells, CD⁴⁺ and CD⁸⁺ T lymphocytes, modulated Th₁ /T_reg immune balance through the activation of the CB₂ receptor, and reducing mitogen-activated protein kinases (p38MAPK) and NF-kB activation and increased ionized calcium-binding adaptor molecule-1 (Iba-1) and IL-1β.

Anti-cancer potential of cannabis terpenes in a taxol-resistant model of breast cancer

Chemotherapeutic resistance can limit breast cancer outcomes; therefore, the exploration of novel therapeutic options is warranted. Isolated compounds found in cannabis have previously been shown to exhibit anti-cancer effects, but little is known about their effects in resistant breast cancer. Our study aims to evaluate the effects of terpenes found in cannabis in in vitro chemotherapy-resistant model of breast cancer. We aimed to identify whether five terpenes found in cannabis produced anti-cancer effects, and if their effects were improved upon co-treatment with cannabinoids and flavonoids also found in cannabis. Nerolidol and β-caryophyllene produced the greatest cytotoxic effects, activated the apoptotic cascade and reduced cellular invasion. Combinations with the flavonoid kaempferol potentiated the cytotoxic effects of ocimene, terpinolene, and β-myrcene. Combinations of nerolidol and Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol or cannabidiol produced variable responses ranging from antagonism and additivity to synergy, depending on concentrations used. Our results indicate that cannabis terpenes, alone or combined with cannabinoids and flavonoids, produced anti-cancer effects in chemotherapy-resistant breast cancer cell lines. This study is a first step in the identification of compounds that could have therapeutic potential in the treatment of resistant breast cancer.

Sorafenib Chemosensitization by Caryophyllane Sesquiterpenes in Liver, Biliary, and Pancreatic Cancer Cells: The Role of STAT3/ABC Transporter Axis

A combination of anticancer drugs and chemosensitizing agents has been approached as a promising strategy to potentiate chemotherapy and reduce toxicity in aggressive and chemoresistant cancers, like hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), cholangiocarcinoma (CCA), and pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC). In the present study, the ability of caryophyllane sesquiterpenes to potentiate sorafenib efficacy was studied in HCC, CCA, and PDAC cell models, focusing on the modulation of STAT3 signaling and ABC transporters; tolerability studies in normal cells were also performed. Results showed that the combination of sorafenib and caryophyllane sesquiterpenes synergized the anticancer drug, especially in pancreatic Bx-PC3 adenocarcinoma cells; a similar trend, although with lower efficacy, was found for the standard ABC transporter inhibitors. Synergistic effects were associated with a modulation of MDR1 (or Pgp) and MRP transporters, both at gene and protein level; moreover, activation of STAT3 cascade and cell migration appeared significantly affected, suggesting that the STAT3/ABC-transporters axis finely regulated efficacy and chemoresistance to sorafenib, thus appearing as a suitable target to overcome drawbacks of sorafenib-based chemotherapy in hepato-biliary-pancreatic cancers. Present findings strengthen the interest in caryophyllane sesquiterpenes as chemosensitizing and chemopreventive agents and contribute to clarifying drug resistance mechanisms in HCC, CCA, and PDAC cancers and to developing possible novel therapeutic strategies.

Synergistic effects of natural compounds and conventional chemotherapeutic agents: recent insights for the development of cancer treatment strategies

Cancer is one of the leading causes of death in the world. Chemotherapy is presented as an option for treatment of this disease, however, low specificity, high resistance rates, toxicity and hypersensitivity reactions, make it necessary to search for therapeutic alternatives that increase the selectivity of treatment, reduce the side effects and enhance its antitumor potential. Natural products are accessible, inexpensive and less toxic sources; in addition, they have multiple mechanisms of action that can potentiate the outcome of chemotherapeutics. In this review, we present evidence on the beneficial effect of the interaction of dietary phytochemicals with chemotherapeutical agents for cancer treatment. This effect is generated by different mechanisms of action such as, increased tumoricidal effect via sensitization of cancer cells, reversing chemoresistance through inhibition of several targets involved in the development of drug resistance and, decreasing chemotherapy-induced toxicity in non-tumoral cells by the promotion of repair mechanisms. Studies discussed in this review will provide a solid basis for the exploration of the potential use of natural products in combination with chemotherapeutical agents, to overcome some of the difficulties that arise in the management of cancer patients.

Anticancer and antioxidant profiling effects of Nerolidol against DMBA induced oral experimental carcinogenesis

The objective of this study is to examine the chemopreventive effects of Nerolidol (NER) on hamster buccal pouch carcinogenesis (HBC) induced by 7,12-dimethylbenz(a)anthracene (DMBA) in male golden Syrian hamsters. In this study, oral squamous cell carcinoma was developed in the buccal pouch of an oral painted hamster with 0.5% DMBA in liquid paraffin three times weekly for 12 weeks. To assess DMBA-induced hamster buccal tissue carcinogenesis, biochemical endpoints such as Phase I and II detoxification enzymes, antioxidants, lipid peroxidation (LPO) by-products, and renal function markers, as well as histopathological examinations, were used. Furthermore, the immunohistochemical studies of interleukin-6 were investigated to find the inflammatory link in the HBC carcinogenesis. In our results, DMBA alone exposed hamsters showed 100% tumor growth, altered levels of antioxidants, detoxification agents, LPO, and renal function identifiers as compared to the control hamsters. The outcome in  present biochemical, histopathological, and immunohistochemistry studies has been found a reverse in NER-treated hamsters against the tumor. This study concluded that NER modulated the biochemical profiles (antioxidants, detoxification, LPO, and renal function markers) and inhibited tumor development in DMBA induced oral carcinogenesis.

Nerolidol inhibits proliferation of leiomyoma cells via reactive oxygen species-induced DNA damage and downregulation of the ATM/Akt pathway

Nerolidol (3,7,11-trimethyl-1,6,10-dodecatrien-3-ol), a sesquiterpene alcohol present in aromatic essential oils of numerous plants, has been reported to possess anticancer activity. The potential therapeutic effect of nerolidol on uterine fibroids (UF), the most common benign tumor of the uterus worldwide, is unknown. In this study, we examined the anti-UF potential of nerolidol in ELT3 cells, a rat leiomyoma cell line widely used as an in vitro model, to identify the potential therapeutic agents for UF. We observed that treatment with cis- or trans-nerolidol inhibited cell proliferation in a dose-dependent manner and induced cell cycle arrest in the G1 phase, which was accompanied by reduction in Akt phosphorylation and downregulation of cyclin D1, cyclin-dependent kinase 4 (CDK4), and CDK6 protein expression. The proliferation-inhibiting activity of nerolidol correlated with the generation of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS), which was suppressed by N-acetyl-l-cysteine, a ROS inhibitor. Nerolidol treatment also increased the percentage of cells for which tail moment could be calculated using an alkaline comet assay, and induced p-γH2AX^ser139 expression, which indicated induction of DNA damage. We also observed downregulation of ATM and its phosphorylation after nerolidol treatment; furthermore, treatment with KU-55933, an ATM kinase inhibitor, mimicked the inhibitory effects of nerolidol treatment on cell proliferation and Akt phosphorylation. In conclusion, nerolidol displayed anti-UF activity in a leiomyoma cell model via ROS-induced DNA damage and G1 phase cell cycle arrest by inhibiting the expression and activation of the ATM/Akt pathway. Our data suggests that nerolidol is a potential therapeutic agent for UF.

Caryophyllene Oxide, the Active Compound Isolated from Leaves of Hymenaea courbaril L. (Fabaceae) with Antiproliferative and Apoptotic Effects on PC-3 Androgen-Independent Prostate Cancer Cell Line

Cancer treatment frequently carries side effects, therefore, the search for new selective and effective molecules is indispensable. Hymenaea courbaril L. has been used in traditional medicine in South America to treat several diseases, including prostate cancer. Leaves’ extracts from different polarities were evaluated using the 3-(4,5-methyl-thiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl-tetrazolium bromide (MTT) cell viability assay to determine the cytotoxicity in prostate p53-null cells, followed by bio-guided fractionations to obtain the most cytotoxic fraction considering the selectivity index. The most cytotoxic fraction was analyzed by GC/MS to identify the active compounds. The majority compound, caryophyllene oxide, induced early and late apoptosis, depolarized the mitochondrial membrane, leading to several morphological changes and shifts in apoptotic proteins, and caspases were evidenced. Depolarization of the mitochondrial membrane releases the pro-apoptotic protein Bax from Bcl-xL. The apoptosis process is caspase-7 activation-dependent. Caryophyllene oxide is a safe anti-proliferative agent against PC-3 cells, inducing apoptosis with low toxicity towards normal cells.

β-Caryophyllene induces apoptosis and inhibits cell proliferation by deregulation of STAT-3/mTOR/AKT signaling in human bladder cancer cells: An in vitro study

The current study aimed to explore the antitumor effect of β-caryophyllene (BCP) on two different cell lines of T24 and 5637 human bladder cancer (BC) cells and its potential molecular mechanisms in inhibition of STAT-3/mTOR/AKT signaling pathways and the inductive process of apoptosis mechanism. The results indicated that BCP showed significant cytotoxicity in BC T24 and 5637 cells in a dose- and time-dependent manner, and IC₅₀ values were 40 µg/ml in the BC cells T24 and 5637. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) synthesis and apoptosis induction were significantly developed, but the mitochondrial membrane potential (Δψm) decreased on BCP treatment as detected by the fluorescence method. Moreover, cell migration was markedly reduced in BCP and Bax, Bcl-2 mRNA expression was modified. Finally, it was found that the STAT-3, mTOR, and AKT protein expressions were suppressed via inhibition of cytotoxicity in T24 and 5637 cells. Therefore, we finally concluded that BCP is an effective treatment against BC T24 and 5637 cells, and it has great chemotherapeutic potential for further bladder carcinoma treatment.

Functional characterization and substrate promiscuity of sesquiterpene synthases from Tripterygium wilfordii

Acyclic terpenes, commonly found in plants, are of high physiological importance and commercial value, and their diversity was controlled by different terpene synthases. During the screen of sesquiterpene synthases from Tripterygium wilfordii, we observed that Ses-TwTPS1-1 and Ses-TwTPS2 promiscuously accepted GPP, FPP, and GGPP to produce corresponding terpene alcohols (linalool/nerolidol/geranyllinalool). The Ses-TwTPS1-2, Ses-TwTPS3, and Ses-TwTPS4 also showed unusual substrate promiscuity by catalyzing GGPP or GPP in addition to FPP as substrate. Furthermore, key residues for the generation of diterpene product, (E, E)-geranyllinalool, were screened depending on mutagenesis studies. The functional analysis of Ses-TwTPS1-1:V199I and Ses-TwTPS1-2:I199V showed that Val in 199 site assisted the produce of diterpene product geranyllinalool by enzyme mutation studies, which indicated that subtle differences away from the active site could alter the product outcome. Moreover, an engineered sesquiterpene high-yielding yeast that produced 162 mg/L nerolidol in shake flask conditions was constructed to quickly identify the function of sesquiterpene synthases in vivo and develop potential applications in microbial fermentation. Our functional characterization of acyclic sesquiterpene synthases will give some insights into the substrate promiscuity of diverse acyclic terpene synthases and provide key residues for expanding the product portfolio.

Nerolidol Attenuates Oxidative Stress, Inflammation, and Apoptosis by Modulating Nrf2/MAPK Signaling Pathways in Doxorubicin-Induced Acute Cardiotoxicity in Rats

The clinical usage of doxorubicin (DOX), a potent anthracycline antineoplastic drug, is often limited by its cardiotoxic effects. Thus, for improving usage of DOX, the aim of this study was to assess the cardioprotective effects of nerolidol (NERO) in a rat model of DOX-induced acute cardiotoxicity and examine underlying molecular mechanisms that contribute to these effects. To induce acute cardiotoxicity male albino Wistar rats were injected with single dose intraperitoneal DOX (12.5 mg/kg). The rats were treated with NERO (50 mg/kg, orally) for five days. DOX-injected rats showed elevated levels of cardiac marker enzymes and enhanced oxidative stress markers along with altered Nrf2/Keap1/HO-1 signaling pathways. DOX administration also induced the activation of NF-κB/MAPK signaling and increased the levels and expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1β) as well as expression of inflammatory mediators (iNOS and COX-2) in the heart. DOX also triggered DNA damage and apoptotic cell death in the myocardium. Additionally, histological studies revealed structural alterations of the myocardium. NERO treatment exhibited protection against the deleterious results of DOX on myocardium, as evidenced by the restoration of altered biochemical parameters, mitigated oxidative stress, inflammation, and apoptosis. The findings of the present study demonstrate that NERO provides cardioprotective effects against DOX-induced acute cardiotoxicity attributed to its potent antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antiapoptotic activities through modulating cellular signaling pathways.

β-Caryophyllene ameliorates the Mycoplasmal pneumonia through the inhibition of NF-κB signal transduction in mice

Background

Pneumonia is a frequent infectious disease that mainly affects the children and the global death rate is nearly 19% among children at the below 5 age. β-caryophyllene is an active compound, mainly occurs in the spices and it possesses immense biological activities.

Objective

This investigation deliberated to scrutinize the beneficial actions of β-caryophyllene against the M. pneumoniae induced pneumonia.

Methods

The pneumonia was stimulated to the BALB/c mice by infecting them with 100 µl of M. pneumonia for 2 days via nasal drops with the concomitant treatment with 20 mg/kg of β-caryophyllene. The total cells in the BALF of test mice were counted by using the Neuber chamber. The total protein and the pro-inflammatory cytokines status were examined by using the commercial ELISA kits. The PCR technique was used to measure the M. pneumoniae bacterial load. The NF-ƙB expression was investigated using western blotting. The lung tissues were analyzed microscopically.

Results

The β-caryophyllene notably diminished the total protein status, total cell count, and bacterial load in the pneumonia provoked mice. The marked reduction in the status of pro-inflammatory regulators was seen in the β-caryophyllene supplemented pneumonia mice. β-caryophyllene also down-regulated the expression of NF-ƙB thereby reduced the lung inflammation and tissue damages as seen in the result of histological analysis.

Conclusion

These findings were confirmed the therapeutic potential of β-caryophyllene against the M. pneumoniae-activated pneumonia in animals.

Silencing of E-cadherin expression leads to increased chemosensitivity to irinotecan and oxaliplatin in colorectal cancer cell lines

Colorectal carcinoma (CRC) is a leading malignant disease in most developed countries. In advanced stages it presents with metastatic dissemination and significant chemoresistance. Despite intensive studies, no convincing evidence has been published concerning the association of cadherins and epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) as a direct cause of acquired chemoresistance in CRC. The present study was designed to investigate the role of E-cadherin in EMT and its associated chemosensitivity/chemoresistance in four immortalized CRC cell lines representing various stages of CRC development (i.e. HT29 and Caco-2-early, SW480 and SW620 late). The expression of E-cadherin gene CDH1 was downregulated by the specific siRNA. Cell proliferation and chemosensitivity to irinotecan (IT) and oxaliplatin (OPT) were detected using WST-1 and x-CELLigence Real Time analysis. Expression of selected EMT markers were tested and compared using RT-PCR and western blot analysis in both variants (E-cadherin silenced and non-silenced) of each cell line. We have discovered that downregulation of E-cadherin expression has a diverse effect on both cell proliferation as well as the expression of EMT markers in individual tested CRC cell lines, with Caco-2 cells being the most responsive. On the other hand, reduced E-cadherin expression resulted in increased sensitivity of all cell lines to IT and mostly to OPT which might be related to changes in intracellular metabolism of these drugs. These results suggest dichotomy of E-cadherin involvement in the phenotypic EMT spectrum of CRC and warrants further mechanistic studies.

Sesquiterpenes and their derivatives-natural anticancer compounds: An update

Sesquiterpenes belong to the largest group of plant secondary metabolites, which consist of three isoprene building units. These compounds are widely distributed in various angiosperms, a few gymnosperms and bryophytes. Sesquiterpenes and their allied derivatives are bio-synthesized in various plant parts including leaves, fruits and roots. These plant-based metabolites are predominantly identified in the Asteraceae family, wherein up to 5000 complexes have been documented to date. Sesquiterpenes and their derivatives are characteristically associated with plant defence mechanisms owing to their antifungal, antibacterial and antiviral activities. Over the last two decades, these compounds have been reportedly demonstrated health promoting perspectives against a wide range of metabolic syndromes i.e. hyperglycemia, hyperlipidemia, cardiovascular complications, neural disorders, diabetes, and cancer. The high potential of sesquiterpenes and their derivatives against various cancers like breast, colon, bladder, pancreatic, prostate, cervical, brain, liver, blood, ovarium, bone, endometrial, oral, lung, eye, stomach and kidney are the object of this review. Predominantly, it recapitulates the literature elucidating sesquiterpenes and their derivatives while highlighting the mechanistic approaches associated with their potent anticancer activities such as modulating nuclear factor kappa (NF-kB) activity, inhibitory action against lipid peroxidation and retarding the production of reactive oxygen & nitrogen species (ROS&RNS).

Anti-Cancer Potential of Cannabinoids, Terpenes, and Flavonoids Present in Cannabis

In recent years, and even more since its legalization in several jurisdictions, cannabis and the endocannabinoid system have received an increasing amount of interest related to their potential exploitation in clinical settings. Cannabinoids have been suggested and shown to be effective in the treatment of various conditions. In cancer, the endocannabinoid system is altered in numerous types of tumours and can relate to cancer prognosis and disease outcome. Additionally, cannabinoids display anticancer effects in several models by suppressing the proliferation, migration and/or invasion of cancer cells, as well as tumour angiogenesis. However, the therapeutic use of cannabinoids is currently limited to the treatment of symptoms and pain associated with chemotherapy, while their potential use as cytotoxic drugs in chemotherapy still requires validation in patients. Along with cannabinoids, cannabis contains several other compounds that have also been shown to exert anti-tumorigenic actions. The potential anti-cancer effects of cannabinoids, terpenes and flavonoids, present in cannabis, are explored in this literature review.

Modulation of STAT3 Signaling, Cell Redox Defenses and Cell Cycle Checkpoints by β-Caryophyllene in Cholangiocarcinoma Cells: Possible Mechanisms Accounting for Doxorubicin Chemosensitization and Chemoprevention

Cholangiocarcinoma (CCA) is an aggressive group of biliary tract cancers, characterized by late diagnosis, low effective chemotherapies, multidrug resistance, and poor outcomes. In the attempt to identify new therapeutic strategies for CCA, we studied the antiproliferative activity of a combination between doxorubicin and the natural sesquiterpene β-caryophyllene in cholangiocarcinoma Mz-ChA-1 cells and nonmalignant H69 cholangiocytes, under both long-term and metronomic schedules. The modulation of STAT3 signaling, oxidative stress, DNA damage response, cell cycle progression and apoptosis was investigated as possible mechanisms of action. β-caryophyllene was able to synergize the cytotoxicity of low dose doxorubicin in Mz-ChA-1 cells, while producing cytoprotective effects in H69 cholangiocytes, mainly after a long-term exposure of 24 h. The mechanistic analysis highlighted that the sesquiterpene induced a cell cycle arrest in G2/M phase along with the doxorubicin-induced accumulation in S phase, reduced the γH2AX and GSH levels without affecting GSSG. ROS amount was partly lowered by the combination in Mz-ChA-1 cells, while increased in H69 cells. A lowered expression of doxorubicin-induced STAT3 activation was found in the presence of β-caryophyllene in both cancer and normal cholangiocytes. These networking effects resulted in an increased apoptosis rate in Mz-ChA-1 cells, despite a lowering in H69 cholangiocytes. This evidence highlighted a possible role of STAT3 as a final effector of a complex network regulated by β-caryophyllene, which leads to an enhanced doxorubicin-sensitivity of cholangiocarcinoma cells and a lowered chemotherapy toxicity in nonmalignant cholangiocytes, thus strengthening the interest for this natural sesquiterpene as a dual-acting chemosensitizing and chemopreventive agent.

Terpenoids, Cannabimimetic Ligands, beyond the Cannabis Plant

Medicinal use of Cannabis sativa L. has an extensive history and it was essential in the discovery of phytocannabinoids, including the Cannabis major psychoactive compound—Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC)—as well as the G-protein-coupled cannabinoid receptors (CBR), named cannabinoid receptor type-1 (CB1R) and cannabinoid receptor type-2 (CB2R), both part of the now known endocannabinoid system (ECS). Cannabinoids is a vast term that defines several compounds that have been characterized in three categories: (i) endogenous, (ii) synthetic, and (iii) phytocannabinoids, and are able to modulate the CBR and ECS. Particularly, phytocannabinoids are natural terpenoids or phenolic compounds derived from Cannabis sativa. However, these terpenoids and phenolic compounds can also be derived from other plants (non-cannabinoids) and still induce cannabinoid-like properties. Cannabimimetic ligands, beyond the Cannabis plant, can act as CBR agonists or antagonists, or ECS enzyme inhibitors, besides being able of playing a role in immune-mediated inflammatory and infectious diseases, neuroinflammatory, neurological, and neurodegenerative diseases, as well as in cancer, and autoimmunity by itself. In this review, we summarize and critically highlight past, present, and future progress on the understanding of the role of cannabinoid-like molecules, mainly terpenes, as prospective therapeutics for different pathological conditions.

Potentiation of Low-Dose Doxorubicin Cytotoxicity by Affecting P-Glycoprotein through Caryophyllane Sesquiterpenes in HepG2 Cells: an in Vitro and in Silico Study

Doxorubicin represents a valuable choice for different cancers, although the severe side effects occurring at the high effective dose limits its clinical use. In the present study, potential strategies to potentiate low-dose doxorubicin efficacy, including a metronomic schedule, characterized by a short and repeated exposure to the anticancer drug, and the combination with the natural chemosensitizing sesquiterpenes β-caryophyllene and β-caryophyllene oxide, were assessed in human hepatoma HepG2 cells. The involvement of P-glycoprotein (P-gp) in the HepG2–chemosensitization to doxorubicin was evaluated. Also, the direct interaction of caryophyllene sesquiterpenes with P-gp was characterized by molecular docking and dynamic simulation studies. A metronomic schedule allowed us to enhance the low-dose doxorubicin cytotoxicity and the combination with caryophyllane sesquiterpenes further potentiated this effect. Also, an increased intracellular accumulation of doxorubicin and rhodamine 123 induced by caryophyllane sesquiterpenes was found, thus suggesting their interference with P-gp function. A lowered expression of P-gp induced by the combinations, with respect to doxorubicin alone, was observed too. Docking studies found that the binding site of caryophyllane sesquiterpene was next to the ATP binding domain of P-gp and that β-caryophyllene possessed the stronger binding affinity and higher inhibition potential calculated by MM-PBSA. Present findings strengthen our hypothesis about the potential chemosensitizing power of caryophyllane sesquiterpenes and suggest that combining a chemosensitizer and a metronomic schedule can represent a suitable strategy to overcome drawbacks of doxorubicin chemotherapy while exploiting its powerful activity.

Nerolidol ameliorates cyclophosphamide-induced oxidative stress, neuroinflammation and cognitive dysfunction: Plausible role of Nrf2 and NF- κB

AIM

Cyclophosphamide (CP) is a potent anticancer and immunosuppressant drug. Studies have shown significant oxidative stress and cognitive impairment but neuroinflammatory and histological aberrations with its administration is underexplored. Nerolidol (NER) is a lipophilic bioactive molecule with antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties but it has not been explored for neuroprotective potential in CP-induced neurotoxic manifestations. Therefore, in the present study, we aimed to evaluate the neuroprotective potential of NER in CP-induced neuroinflammation and associated comorbid conditions like depression and cognitive dysfunctions.

MATERIALS AND METHOD

In-silico study using Schrödinger software was used to assess the binding affinity of NER with Nrf2. In the In vivo study, NER 200 and 400 mg/kg p.o. were given from 1st day to 14th day. CP 200 mg/kg, i.p., was administered on the 7th day. After 24 h of the last dosing, neurobehavioral tests like spontaneous body alternation, passive avoidance and forced swim test were performed. On completion of study, mice were sacrificed, hippocampus and cortex were removed for biochemical estimations, histopathology and immunohistochemistry of p65 NF- κB and Nrf2.

KEY FINDINGS

In-silico study showed significant binding of NER into the pocket domain of Nrf2. In-vivo study showed protective effect of NER against CP-induced neuroinflammation, oxidative stress, cognitive impairment and structural abnormalities in the hippocampus and cortex regions.

SIGNIFICANCE

Findings of the study suggested that NER is a potential therapeutic molecule which can mitigate CP-induced neurotoxic manifestations via Nrf2 and NF-κB pathway. However, more detailed studies are needed to explicate the mechanism underlying its neuroprotective effect.

1,25‑Dihydroxyvitamin D3 enhances the susceptibility of anaplastic thyroid cancer cells to adriamycin‑induced apoptosis by increasing the generation of reactive oxygen species

Anaplastic thyroid cancer (ATC) is a very aggressive malignancy that is resistant to various types of chemotherapy in humans. Most patients with late-stage ATC cannot undergo surgery and receive chemotherapy drugs. The present study investigated the influence of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D₃ (1,25(OH)₂D₃) pretreatment on adriamycin (ADM) chemotherapy efficacy in the 8305c and 8505c ATC cell lines. The apoptotic effects of ADM on ATC cells pretreated with 1,25(OH)₂D₃ were evaluated. Cell viability was identified by using the Cell Counting Kit-8 assay. Apoptosis was assessed by flow cytometry and staining with Hoechst 33342. The expression of the apoptotic protein cleaved caspase-3 was tested with a colorimetric assay kit and by western blotting. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation was assessed with the antioxidant N-acetyl-L-cysteine (NAC) and the assay H₂-DCFDA. In addition, ROS production could be reversed by NAC treatment. The present study demonstrated that 1,25(OH)₂D₃ enhanced ADM-induced apoptosis in 8305c and 8505c cell lines. Furthermore, 1,25(OH)₂D₃ improved the ADM-induced ROS production and expression of cleaved caspase-3. NAC treatment inhibited the expression of cleaved caspase-3 in ATC cells, and reduced apoptosis in cells that were pretreated with 1,25(OH)₂D₃ and ADM. These results demonstrated that 1,25(OH)₂D₃ may enhance ADM-induced apoptosis by increasing ROS generation in ATC cells.

Chemosensitization of hepatocellular carcinoma cells to sorafenib by β-caryophyllene oxide-induced inhibition of ABC export pumps

Several ATP-binding cassette (ABC) proteins reduce intracellular concentrations of antitumor drugs and hence weaken the response of cancer cells to chemotherapy. Accordingly, the inhibition of these export pumps constitutes a promising strategy to chemosensitize highly chemoresistant tumors, such as hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Here, we have investigated the ability of β-caryophyllene oxide (CRYO), a naturally occurring sesquiterpene component of many essential oils, to inhibit, at non-toxic doses, ABC pumps and improve the response of HCC cells to sorafenib. First, we have obtained a clonal subline (Alexander/R) derived from human hepatoma cells with enhanced multidrug resistance (MDR) associated to up-regulation (mRNA and protein) of MRP1 and MRP2. Analysis of fluorescent substrates export (flow cytometry) revealed that CRYO did not affect the efflux of fluorescein (MRP3, MRP4 and MRP5) but inhibited that of rhodamine 123 (MDR1) and calcein (MRP1 and MRP2). This ability was higher for CRYO than for other sesquiterpenes assayed. CRYO also inhibited sorafenib efflux, increased its intracellular accumulation (HPLC-MS/MS) and enhanced its cytotoxic response (MTT). For comparison, the effect of known ABC pumps inhibitors was also determined. They induced strong (diclofenac on MRPs), modest (verapamil on MDR1) or null (fumitremorgin C on BCRP) effect on sorafenib efflux and cytotoxicity. In the mouse xenograft model, the response to sorafenib treatment of subcutaneous tumors generated by mouse hepatoma Hepa 1-6/R cells, with marked MDR phenotype, was significantly enhanced by CRYO co-administration. In conclusion, at non-toxic dose, CRYO is able to chemosensitizating liver cancer cells to sorafenib by favoring its intracellular accumulation.

SPC Liposomes as Possible Delivery Systems for Improving Bioavailability of the Natural Sesquiterpene β-Caryophyllene: Lamellarity and Drug-Loading as Key Features for a Rational Drug Delivery Design

The natural sesquiterpene β-caryophyllene (CRY) has been highlighted to possess interesting pharmacological potentials, particularly due to its chemopreventive and analgesic properties. However, the poor solubility of this sesquiterpene in aqueous fluids can hinder its uptake into cells, resulting in inconstant responses of biological systems, thus limiting its application. Therefore, identifying a suitable pharmaceutical form for increasing CRY bioavailability represents an important requirement for exploiting its pharmacological potential. In the present study, the ability of soybean phosphatidylcholine (SPC) liposomes to improve bioavailability and absorption of CRY in cancer cells has been evaluated. Liposomal formulations of CRY, differing for lamellarity (i.e., unilamellar and multilamellar vesicles or ULV and MLV) and for the drug loading (i.e., 1:0.1, 1:0.3 and 1:0.5 mol/mol between SPC and CRY) were designed with the aim of maximizing CRY amount in the liposome bilayer, while avoiding its leakage during storage. The low-loaded formulations significantly potentiated the antiproliferative activity of CRY in both HepG2 and MDA-MB-468 cells, reaching a maximum IC₅₀ lowering (from two to five folds) with 1:0.3 and 1:0.1 SPC/CRY MLV. Conversely, increasing liposome drug-loading reduced the ability for CRY release, likely due to a possible interaction between SPC and CRY that affects the membrane properties, as confirmed by physical measures.

Medicinal properties of terpenes found in Cannabis sativa and Humulus lupulus

Cannabaceae plants Cannabis sativa L. and Humulus lupulus L. are rich in terpenes - both are typically comprised of terpenes as up to 3-5% of the dry-mass of the female inflorescence. Terpenes of cannabis and hops are typically simple mono- and sesquiterpenes derived from two and three isoprene units, respectively. Some terpenes are relatively well known for their potential in biomedicine and have been used in traditional medicine for centuries, while others are yet to be studied in detail. The current, comprehensive review presents terpenes found in cannabis and hops. Terpenes' medicinal properties are supported by numerous in vitro, animal and clinical trials and show anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, analgesic, anticonvulsive, antidepressant, anxiolytic, anticancer, antitumor, neuroprotective, anti-mutagenic, anti-allergic, antibiotic and anti-diabetic attributes, among others. Because of the very low toxicity, these terpenes are already widely used as food additives and in cosmetic products. Thus, they have been proven safe and well-tolerated.

The metabolism of flubendazole in human liver and cancer cell lines

Flubendazole (FLU), a benzimidazole anthelmintic drug widely used in veterinary medicine, has been approved for the treatment of gut-residing nematodes in humans. In addition, FLU is now considered a promising anti-cancer agent. Despite this, information about biotransformation of this compound in human is lacking. Moreover, there is no information regarding whether cancer cells are able to metabolize FLU in order to deactivate it. For these reasons, the present study was designed to identify all metabolites of Phase I and Phase II of FLU in human liver and in various cancer cells using ultra high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS) analysis. Precision-cut human liver slices and 9 cell lines of different origin (breast, colon, oral cavity) were used as in vitro model systems. Our study showed that FLU with a reduced carbonyl group (FLUR) is the only FLU metabolite formed in the human liver. All human cancer cell lines were able to form FLUR. In addition, methylated FLUR was detected in breast cells MCF7 and intestinal SW480 cells. The accumulation of FLU and its reduction to FLUR markedly differed among cells. The extent of FLU reduction was in a good correlation with the detected expression level of carbonyl reductase 1. In most cases, FLU entered in a higher amount and was reduced to a lesser extent in proliferating (metastatic) cells than in differentiated (non-cancerous, non-metastatic) ones. These results support the promising potential of FLU in anti-cancer therapy.