1
|
Detection of the oil-producing microalga Botryococcus braunii in natural freshwater environments by targeting the hydrocarbon biosynthesis gene SSL-3. Sci Rep 2019; 9:16974. [PMID: 31740707 PMCID: PMC6861321 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-53619-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2019] [Accepted: 11/04/2019] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
The green microalga Botryococcus braunii produces hydrocarbon oils at 25-75% of its dry weight and is a promising source of biofuel feedstock. Few studies have examined this species' ecology in natural habitats, and few wild genetic resources have been collected due to difficulties caused by its low abundance in nature. This study aimed to develop a real-time PCR assay for specific detection and quantification of this alga in natural environments and to quantify spatiotemporal variations of wild B. braunii populations in a tropical pond. We designed PCR primers toward the hydrocarbon biosynthesis gene SSL-3 and examined amplification specificity and PCR efficiency with 70 wild strains newly isolated from various environments. The results demonstrated that this PCR assay specifically amplified B. braunii DNA, especially that of B-race strains, and can be widely used to detect wild B. braunii strains in temperate and tropical habitats. Field-testing in a tropical pond suggested a diurnal change in the abundance of B. braunii in surface water and found B. braunii not only in surface water, but also at 1-1.5 m deep and in bottom sediments. This method can contribute to efficient genetic resource exploitations and may also help elucidate the unknown ecology of B. braunii.
Collapse
|
2
|
Cai P, Ning Z, Zhang N, Zhang M, Guo C, Niu M, Shi J. Insights into Biodegradation Related Metabolism in an Abnormally Low Dissolved Inorganic Carbon (DIC) Petroleum-Contaminated Aquifer by Metagenomics Analysis. Microorganisms 2019; 7:microorganisms7100412. [PMID: 31581560 PMCID: PMC6843334 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms7100412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2019] [Revised: 09/06/2019] [Accepted: 09/25/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
In petroleum-contaminated aquifers, biodegradation is always associated with various types of microbial metabolism. It can be classified as autotrophic (such as methanogenic and other carbon fixation) and heterotrophic (such as nitrate/sulfate reduction and hydrocarbon consumption) metabolism. For each metabolic type, there are several key genes encoding the reaction enzymes, which can be identified by metagenomics analysis. Based on this principle, in an abnormally low dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) petroleum-contaminated aquifer in North China, nine groundwater samples were collected along the groundwater flow, and metagenomics analysis was used to discover biodegradation related metabolism by key genes. The major new finding is that autotrophic metabolism was revealed, and, more usefully, we attempt to explain the reasons for abnormally low DIC. The results show that the methanogenesis gene, Mcr, was undetected but more carbon fixation genes than nitrate reduction and sulfate genes were found. This suggests that there may be a considerable number of autotrophic microorganisms that cause the phenomenon of low concentration of dissolved inorganic carbon in contaminated areas. The metagenomics data also revealed that most heterotrophic, sulfate, and nitrate reduction genes in the aquifer were assimilatory sulfate and dissimilatory nitrate reduction genes. Although there was limited dissolved oxygen, aerobic degrading genes AlkB and Cdo were more abundant than anaerobic degrading genes AssA and BssA. The metagenomics information can enrich our microorganic knowledge about petroleum-contaminated aquifers and provide basic data for further bioremediation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Pingping Cai
- Institute of Hydrogeology and Environmental Geology, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences, Shijiazhuang 050061, China.
- School of Resources and Environmental Engineering, HeFei University of Technology, Hefei 230009, China.
| | - Zhuo Ning
- Institute of Hydrogeology and Environmental Geology, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences, Shijiazhuang 050061, China.
- Key Laboratory of Groundwater Remediation of Hebei Province, Zhengding 050083, China.
| | - Ningning Zhang
- Institute of Hydrogeology and Environmental Geology, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences, Shijiazhuang 050061, China.
- School of Water Resources and Environment, China University of Geosciences (Beijing), Beijing 100083, China.
| | - Min Zhang
- Institute of Hydrogeology and Environmental Geology, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences, Shijiazhuang 050061, China.
| | - Caijuan Guo
- Institute of Hydrogeology and Environmental Geology, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences, Shijiazhuang 050061, China.
| | - Manlan Niu
- School of Resources and Environmental Engineering, HeFei University of Technology, Hefei 230009, China.
| | - Jiansheng Shi
- Institute of Hydrogeology and Environmental Geology, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences, Shijiazhuang 050061, China.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Cheng P, Zhou C, Wang Y, Xu Z, Xu J, Zhou D, Zhang Y, Wu H, Zhang X, Liu T, Tang M, Yang Q, Yan X, Fan J. Comparative transcriptome analyses of oleaginous Botryococcus braunii race A reveal significant differences in gene expression upon cobalt enrichment. BIOTECHNOLOGY FOR BIOFUELS 2018; 11:333. [PMID: 30568733 PMCID: PMC6297975 DOI: 10.1186/s13068-018-1331-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2018] [Accepted: 12/05/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Botryococcus braunii is known for its high hydrocarbon content, thus making it a strong candidate feedstock for biofuel production. Previous study has revealed that a high cobalt concentration can promote hydrocarbon synthesis and it has little effect on growth of B. braunii cells. However, mechanisms beyond the cobalt enrichment remain unknown. This study seeks to explore the physiological and transcriptional response and the metabolic pathways involved in cobalt-induced hydrocarbon synthesis in algae cells. RESULTS Growth curves were similar at either normal or high cobalt concentration (4.5 mg/L), suggesting the absence of obvious deleterious effects on growth introduced by cobalt. Photosynthesis indicators (decline in Fv/Fm ratio and chlorophyll content) and reactive oxygen species parameters revealed an increase in physiological stress in the high cobalt concentration. Moreover, cobalt enrichment treatment resulted in higher crude hydrocarbon content (51.3% on day 8) compared with the control (43.4% on day 8) throughout the experiment (with 18.2% improvement finally). Through the de novo assembly and functional annotation of the B. braunii race A SAG 807-1 transcriptome, we retrieved 196,276 non-redundant unigenes with an average length of 1086 bp. Of the assembled unigenes, 89,654 (45.7%), 42,209 (21.5%), and 32,318 (16.5%) were found to be associated with at least one KOG, GO, or KEGG ortholog function. In the early treatment (day 2), the most strongly upregulated genes were those involved in the fatty acid biosynthesis and metabolism and oxidative phosphorylation, whereas the most downregulated genes were those involved in carbohydrate metabolism and photosynthesis. Genes that produce terpenoid liquid hydrocarbons were also well identified and annotated, and 21 (or 29.2%) were differentially expressed along the cobalt treatment. CONCLUSIONS Botryococcus braunii SAG 807-1 can tolerate high cobalt concentration and benefit from hydrocarbon accumulation. The time-course expression profiles for fatty acid biosynthesis, metabolism, and TAG assembly were obtained through different approaches but had equally satisfactory results with the redirection of free long-chain fatty acid and VLCFA away from TAG assembly and oxidation. These molecules served as precursors and backbone supply for the fatty acid-derived hydrocarbon accumulation. These findings provide a foundation for exploiting the regulation mechanisms in B. braunii race A for improved photosynthetic production of hydrocarbons.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Pengfei Cheng
- College of Food and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ningbo University, Ningbo, 315211 People’s Republic of China
| | - Chengxu Zhou
- College of Food and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ningbo University, Ningbo, 315211 People’s Republic of China
| | - Yan Wang
- College of Food and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ningbo University, Ningbo, 315211 People’s Republic of China
| | - Zhihui Xu
- College of Food and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ningbo University, Ningbo, 315211 People’s Republic of China
| | - Jilin Xu
- College of Food and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ningbo University, Ningbo, 315211 People’s Republic of China
| | - Dongqing Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, 130 Meilong Road, Shanghai, 200237 People’s Republic of China
- Department of Applied Biology, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, 200237 People’s Republic of China
| | - Yinghui Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, 130 Meilong Road, Shanghai, 200237 People’s Republic of China
- Department of Applied Biology, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, 200237 People’s Republic of China
| | - Haizhen Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, 130 Meilong Road, Shanghai, 200237 People’s Republic of China
- Department of Applied Biology, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, 200237 People’s Republic of China
| | - Xuezhi Zhang
- Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, 430072 People’s Republic of China
| | - Tianzhong Liu
- Key Laboratory of Biofuels, Qingdao Institute of Bioenergy and Bioprocess Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, 266101 People’s Republic of China
| | - Ming Tang
- Poyang Lake Eco-economy Research Center, Jiujiang University, Jiujiang, 332000 People’s Republic of China
| | - Qiyong Yang
- Poyang Lake Eco-economy Research Center, Jiujiang University, Jiujiang, 332000 People’s Republic of China
| | - Xiaojun Yan
- Key Laboratory of Marine Biotechnology of Zhejiang Province, Ningbo University, 818 Fenghua Road, Ningbo, 315211 People’s Republic of China
| | - Jianhua Fan
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, 130 Meilong Road, Shanghai, 200237 People’s Republic of China
- Department of Applied Biology, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, 200237 People’s Republic of China
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Zhou L, Cheng D, Wang L, Gao J, Zhao Q, Wei W, Sun Y. Comparative transcriptomic analysis reveals phenol tolerance mechanism of evolved Chlorella strain. BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY 2017; 227:266-272. [PMID: 28040647 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2016.12.059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2016] [Revised: 12/14/2016] [Accepted: 12/17/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
The growth of microalgae is inhibited by high concentration phenol due to reactive oxygen species. An evolved strain tolerated to 500mg/L phenol, Chlorella sp. L5, was obtained in previous study. In this study, comparative transcriptomic analysis was performed for Chlorella sp. L5 and its original strain (Chlorella sp. L3). The tolerance mechanism of Chlorella sp. L5 for high concentration phenol was explored on genome scale. It was identified that the up-regulations of the related genes according to antioxidant enzymes (SOD, APX, CAT and GR) and carotenoids (astaxanthin, lutein and lycopene) biosynthesis had critical roles to tolerate high concentration phenol. In addition, most of genes of PS I, PS II, photosynthetic electron transport chain and starch biosynthesis were also up-regulated. It was consistent to the experimental results of total carbohydrate contents of Chlorella sp. L3 and Chlorella sp. L5 under 0mg/L and 500mg/L phenol.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lin Zhou
- Shanghai Advanced Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 99 Haike Road, Shanghai 201210, China; School of Life Science, Shanghai University, 99 Shangda Road, Shanghai 200444, China
| | - Dujia Cheng
- Shanghai Advanced Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 99 Haike Road, Shanghai 201210, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, 19 Yuquan Road, Beijing 100049, China; ShanghaiTech University, 100 Haike Road, Shanghai 201210, China
| | - Liang Wang
- Shanghai Advanced Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 99 Haike Road, Shanghai 201210, China
| | - Juan Gao
- School of Life Science, Shanghai University, 99 Shangda Road, Shanghai 200444, China
| | - Quanyu Zhao
- Shanghai Advanced Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 99 Haike Road, Shanghai 201210, China; ShanghaiTech University, 100 Haike Road, Shanghai 201210, China.
| | - Wei Wei
- Shanghai Advanced Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 99 Haike Road, Shanghai 201210, China; ShanghaiTech University, 100 Haike Road, Shanghai 201210, China
| | - Yuhan Sun
- Shanghai Advanced Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 99 Haike Road, Shanghai 201210, China; ShanghaiTech University, 100 Haike Road, Shanghai 201210, China
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Jin J, Dupré C, Yoneda K, Watanabe MM, Legrand J, Grizeau D. Characteristics of extracellular hydrocarbon-rich microalga Botryococcus braunii for biofuels production: Recent advances and opportunities. Process Biochem 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.procbio.2015.11.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
|
6
|
Jin J, Dupré C, Legrand J, Grizeau D. Extracellular hydrocarbon and intracellular lipid accumulation are related to nutrient-sufficient conditions in pH-controlled chemostat cultures of the microalga Botryococcus braunii SAG 30.81. ALGAL RES 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.algal.2016.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
|
7
|
Guarnieri MT, Pienkos PT. Algal omics: unlocking bioproduct diversity in algae cell factories. PHOTOSYNTHESIS RESEARCH 2015; 123:255-63. [PMID: 24627032 DOI: 10.1007/s11120-014-9989-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2013] [Accepted: 02/17/2014] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
Rapid advances in "omic" technologies are helping to unlock the full potential of microalgae as multi-use feedstocks, with utility in an array of industrial biotechnology, biofuel, and biomedical applications. In turn, algae are emerging as highly attractive candidates for development as microbial cell factories. In this review, we examine the wide array of potential algal bioproducts, with a focus upon the role of omic technologies in driving bioproduct discovery and optimization in microalgal systems.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Michael T Guarnieri
- National Bioenergy Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 15013 Denver West Parkway, MS 3323, Golden, CO, 80401, USA,
| | | |
Collapse
|
8
|
Demura M, Ioki M, Kawachi M, Nakajima N, Watanabe MM. Desiccation tolerance of Botryococcus braunii (Trebouxiophyceae, Chlorophyta) and extreme temperature tolerance of dehydrated cells. JOURNAL OF APPLIED PHYCOLOGY 2013; 26:49-53. [PMID: 24600162 PMCID: PMC3918389 DOI: 10.1007/s10811-013-0059-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2013] [Revised: 05/21/2013] [Accepted: 05/22/2013] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Botryococcus braunii Kützing, a green colonial microalga, occurs worldwide in both freshwater and brackish water environments. Despite considerable attention to B. braunii as a potential source of renewable fuel, many ecophysiological properties of this alga remain unknown. Here, we examined the desiccation and temperature tolerances of B. braunii using two newly isolated strains BOD-NG17 and BOD-GJ2. Both strains survived through 6- and 8-month desiccation treatments but not through a 12-month treatment. Interestingly, the desiccation-treated cells of B. braunii gained tolerance to extreme temperature shifts, i.e., high temperature (40 °C) and freezing (-20 °C). Both strains survived for at least 4 and 10 days at 40 and -20 °C, respectively, while the untreated cells barely survived at these temperatures. These traits would enable long-distance dispersal of B. braunii cells and may account for the worldwide distribution of this algal species. Extracellular substances such as polysaccharides and hydrocarbons seem to confer the desiccation tolerance.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mikihide Demura
- Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Tennoudai 1-1-1, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8577 Japan
- National Institute for Environmental Studies, Onogawa 16-2, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8506 Japan
| | - Motohide Ioki
- Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Tennoudai 1-1-1, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8577 Japan
- National Institute for Environmental Studies, Onogawa 16-2, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8506 Japan
| | - Masanobu Kawachi
- Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Tennoudai 1-1-1, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8577 Japan
- National Institute for Environmental Studies, Onogawa 16-2, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8506 Japan
| | - Nobuyoshi Nakajima
- Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Tennoudai 1-1-1, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8577 Japan
- National Institute for Environmental Studies, Onogawa 16-2, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8506 Japan
| | - Makoto M. Watanabe
- Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Tennoudai 1-1-1, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8577 Japan
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Active hydrocarbon biosynthesis and accumulation in a green alga, Botryococcus braunii (race A). EUKARYOTIC CELL 2013; 12:1132-41. [PMID: 23794509 DOI: 10.1128/ec.00088-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Among oleaginous microalgae, the colonial green alga Botryococcus braunii accumulates especially large quantities of hydrocarbons. This accumulation may be achieved more by storage of lipids in the extracellular space rather than in the cytoplasm, as is the case for all other examined oleaginous microalgae. The stage of hydrocarbon synthesis during the cell cycle was determined by autoradiography. The cell cycle of B. braunii race A was synchronized by aminouracil treatment, and cells were taken at various stages in the cell cycle and cultured in a medium containing [(14)C]acetate. Incorporation of (14)C into hydrocarbons was detected. The highest labeling occurred just after septum formation, when it was about 2.6 times the rate during interphase. Fluorescent and electron microscopy revealed that new lipid accumulation on the cell surface occurred during at least two different growth stages and sites of cells. Lipid bodies in the cytoplasm were not prominent in interphase cells. These lipid bodies then increased in number, size, and inclusions, reaching maximum values just before the first lipid accumulation on the cell surface at the cell apex. Most of them disappeared from the cytoplasm concomitant with the second new accumulation at the basolateral region, where extracellular lipids continuously accumulated. The rough endoplasmic reticulum near the plasma membrane is prominent in B. braunii, and the endoplasmic reticulum was often in contact with both a chloroplast and lipid bodies in cells with increasing numbers of lipid bodies. We discuss the transport pathway of precursors of extracellular hydrocarbons in race A.
Collapse
|
10
|
Molnár I, Lopez D, Wisecaver JH, Devarenne TP, Weiss TL, Pellegrini M, Hackett JD. Bio-crude transcriptomics: gene discovery and metabolic network reconstruction for the biosynthesis of the terpenome of the hydrocarbon oil-producing green alga, Botryococcus braunii race B (Showa). BMC Genomics 2012; 13:576. [PMID: 23110428 PMCID: PMC3533583 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2164-13-576] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2012] [Accepted: 10/19/2012] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Microalgae hold promise for yielding a biofuel feedstock that is sustainable, carbon-neutral, distributed, and only minimally disruptive for the production of food and feed by traditional agriculture. Amongst oleaginous eukaryotic algae, the B race of Botryococcus braunii is unique in that it produces large amounts of liquid hydrocarbons of terpenoid origin. These are comparable to fossil crude oil, and are sequestered outside the cells in a communal extracellular polymeric matrix material. Biosynthetic engineering of terpenoid bio-crude production requires identification of genes and reconstruction of metabolic pathways responsible for production of both hydrocarbons and other metabolites of the alga that compete for photosynthetic carbon and energy. Results A de novo assembly of 1,334,609 next-generation pyrosequencing reads form the Showa strain of the B race of B. braunii yielded a transcriptomic database of 46,422 contigs with an average length of 756 bp. Contigs were annotated with pathway, ontology, and protein domain identifiers. Manual curation allowed the reconstruction of pathways that produce terpenoid liquid hydrocarbons from primary metabolites, and pathways that divert photosynthetic carbon into tetraterpenoid carotenoids, diterpenoids, and the prenyl chains of meroterpenoid quinones and chlorophyll. Inventories of machine-assembled contigs are also presented for reconstructed pathways for the biosynthesis of competing storage compounds including triacylglycerol and starch. Regeneration of S-adenosylmethionine, and the extracellular localization of the hydrocarbon oils by active transport and possibly autophagy are also investigated. Conclusions The construction of an annotated transcriptomic database, publicly available in a web-based data depository and annotation tool, provides a foundation for metabolic pathway and network reconstruction, and facilitates further omics studies in the absence of a genome sequence for the Showa strain of B. braunii, race B. Further, the transcriptome database empowers future biosynthetic engineering approaches for strain improvement and the transfer of desirable traits to heterologous hosts.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- István Molnár
- Natural Products Center, School of Natural Resources and the Environment, The University of Arizona, Tucson, 85739, USA.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
11
|
Colony organization in the green alga Botryococcus braunii (Race B) is specified by a complex extracellular matrix. EUKARYOTIC CELL 2012; 11:1424-40. [PMID: 22941913 DOI: 10.1128/ec.00184-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Botryococcus braunii is a colonial green alga whose cells associate via a complex extracellular matrix (ECM) and produce prodigious amounts of liquid hydrocarbons that can be readily converted into conventional combustion engine fuels. We used quick-freeze deep-etch electron microscopy and biochemical/histochemical analysis to elucidate many new features of B. braunii cell/colony organization and composition. Intracellular lipid bodies associate with the chloroplast and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) but show no evidence of being secreted. The ER displays striking fenestrations and forms a continuous subcortical system in direct contact with the cell membrane. The ECM has three distinct components. (i) Each cell is surrounded by a fibrous β-1, 4- and/or β-1, 3-glucan-containing cell wall. (ii) The intracolonial ECM space is filled with a cross-linked hydrocarbon network permeated with liquid hydrocarbons. (iii) Colonies are enclosed in a retaining wall festooned with a fibrillar sheath dominated by arabinose-galactose polysaccharides, which sequesters ECM liquid hydrocarbons. Each cell apex associates with the retaining wall and contributes to its synthesis. Retaining-wall domains also form "drapes" between cells, with some folding in on themselves and penetrating the hydrocarbon interior of a mother colony, partitioning it into daughter colonies. We propose that retaining-wall components are synthesized in the apical Golgi apparatus, delivered to apical ER fenestrations, and assembled on the surfaces of apical cell walls, where a proteinaceous granular layer apparently participates in fibril morphogenesis. We further propose that hydrocarbons are produced by the nonapical ER, directly delivered to the contiguous cell membrane, and pass across the nonapical cell wall into the hydrocarbon-based ECM.
Collapse
|