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Madadi M, Song G, Sun F, Sun C, Xia C, Zhang E, Karimi K, Tu M. Positive role of non-catalytic proteins on mitigating inhibitory effects of lignin and enhancing cellulase activity in enzymatic hydrolysis: Application, mechanism, and prospective. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2022; 215:114291. [PMID: 36103929 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2022.114291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2022] [Revised: 08/18/2022] [Accepted: 09/04/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Fermentable sugar production from lignocellulosic biomass has received considerable attention and has been dramatic progress recently. However, due to low enzymatic hydrolysis (EH) yields and rates, a high dosage of the costly enzyme is required, which is a bottleneck for commercial applications. Over the last decades, various strategies have been developed to reduce cellulase enzyme costs. The progress of the non-catalytic additive proteins in mitigating inhibition in EH is discussed in detail in this review. The low efficiency of EH is mostly due to soluble lignin compounds, insoluble lignin, and harsh thermal and mechanical conditions of the EH process. Adding non-catalytic proteins into the EH is considered a simple and efficient approach to boost hydrolysis yield. This review discussed the multiple mechanical steps involved in the EH process. The effect of physicochemical properties of modified lignin on EH and its interaction with cellulase and cellulose are identified and discussed, which include hydrogen bonding, hydrophobic, electrostatic, and cation-π interactions, as well as physical barriers. Moreover, the effects of different conditions of EH that lead to cellulase deactivation by thermal and mechanical mechanisms are also explained. Finally, recent advances in the development, potential mechanisms, and economic feasibility of non-catalytic proteins on EH are evaluated and perspectives are presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meysam Madadi
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, Ministry of Education, School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, 214122, China
| | - Guojie Song
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, Ministry of Education, School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, 214122, China
| | - Fubao Sun
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, Ministry of Education, School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, 214122, China.
| | - Chihe Sun
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, Ministry of Education, School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, 214122, China
| | - Changlei Xia
- Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center of Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest Resources, International Innovation Center for Forest Chemicals and Materials, College of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 210037, China
| | - Ezhen Zhang
- Institute of Agro-Products Processing Science and Technology, Guangxi Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanning, 530007, China
| | - Keikhosro Karimi
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Isfahan University of Technology, Isfahan, 84156-83111, Iran
| | - Maobing Tu
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH, 45221, United States
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2
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Zúñiga-Arias D, Charpentier-Alfaro C, Méndez-Arias J, Rodríguez-Mora K. Changes in the structure and composition of pineapple leaf fiber after alkali and ionic surfactant pretreatments and their impact on enzymatic hydrolysis. Prep Biochem Biotechnol 2022; 52:969-978. [PMID: 35034574 DOI: 10.1080/10826068.2021.2021233] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The current study investigated the effects of two different pretreatments (NaOH and alkaline surfactant assisted) on the chemical, morphological and enzymatic saccharification of pineapple leaf fiber (PALF). Results showed that both pretreatments significantly reduced lignin content of the biomass, achieving a 69.6 and a 76.3% reduction for NaOH and surfactant pretreated materials, respectively. SEM, CLSM and FTIR-ATR techniques were used to evaluate morphological changes in the fibers after pretreatments. Images obtained revealed cellulose exposure and lignin redistribution in the pretreated fibers. Surfactant pretreated material provided the best results after enzymatic hydrolysis compared to NaOH and untreated PALF. A final enzymatic hydrolysis yield of 81.8% was obtained after a 24 h process using surfactant pretreated fibers, in comparison to 75.9 and 45.1% yields for NaOH pretreated material and raw fibers, respectively. Nowadays, the use of agricultural residues for high added value products is of great importance for sustainable development. This work specifically studied an effective and green approach for lignin removal and enzymatic hydrolysis from pineapple leaf fiber that is an abundant waste in Costa Rica and an interesting feedstock for biorefinery processes design.
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Affiliation(s)
- Débora Zúñiga-Arias
- Es cuela de Ingeniería Química, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Camila Charpentier-Alfaro
- Es cuela de Ingeniería Química, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica.,Centro Nacional de Innovaciones Biotecnológicas (CENIBiot), CeNAT-CONARE, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Johanna Méndez-Arias
- Escuela de Ingeniería Industrial, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica.,Instituto de Investigaciones en Ingeniería, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Karina Rodríguez-Mora
- Instituto de Investigaciones en Ingeniería, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
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3
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Ahmed-Haras MR, Kao N, Ward L. Single-step heterogeneous catalysis production of highly monodisperse spherical nanocrystalline cellulose. Int J Biol Macromol 2020; 154:246-255. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2020.02.298] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2020] [Revised: 02/19/2020] [Accepted: 02/25/2020] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
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4
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Non-thermal treatment for the stabilisation of liquid food using a tubular cellulose filter from corn stalks. Food Control 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2020.107164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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5
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Modesto LF, Méndez J, Wischral D, Pereira N. Swollenin pre-conditioning: optimization studies and application aiming at d-lactic acid production from sugarcane bagasse. CHEM ENG COMMUN 2019. [DOI: 10.1080/00986445.2018.1477762] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Luiz Felipe Modesto
- Laboratories of Bioprocess Development, Department of Biochemical Engineering, School of Chemistry, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Johanna Méndez
- Laboratories of Bioprocess Development, Department of Biochemical Engineering, School of Chemistry, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
- Escuela de Ingeniería Industrial, Instituto de Investigaciones em Ingeniería, Universidad de Costa Rica, Ciudad Universitaria Rodrigo Facio, San Pedro, Montes de Oca, Costa Rica
| | - Daiana Wischral
- Laboratories of Bioprocess Development, Department of Biochemical Engineering, School of Chemistry, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Nei Pereira
- Laboratories of Bioprocess Development, Department of Biochemical Engineering, School of Chemistry, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
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Ye Z, Song J, Zhu E, Song X, Chen X, Hong X. Alginate Adsorbent Immobilization Technique Promotes Biobutanol Production by Clostridium acetobutylicum Under Extreme Condition of High Concentration of Organic Solvent. Front Microbiol 2018; 9:1071. [PMID: 29910776 PMCID: PMC5992427 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.01071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2018] [Accepted: 05/04/2018] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
In Acetone-Butanol-Ethanol fermentation, bacteria should tolerate high concentrations of solvent products, which inhibit bacteria growth and limit further increase of solvents to more than 20 g/L. Moreover, this limited solvent concentration significantly increases the cost of solvent separation through traditional approaches. In this study, alginate adsorbent immobilization technique was successfully developed to assist in situ extraction using octanol which is effective in extracting butanol but presents strong toxic effect to bacteria. The adsorbent improved solvent tolerance of Clostridium acetobutylicum under extreme condition of high concentration of organic solvent. Using the developed technique, more than 42% of added bacteria can be adsorbed to the adsorbent. Surface area of the adsorbent was more than 10 times greater than sodium alginate. Scanning electron microscope image shows that an abundant amount of pore structure was successfully developed on adsorbents, promoting bacteria adsorption. In adsorbent assisted ABE fermentation, there was 21.64 g/L butanol in extracting layer compared to negligible butanol produced with only the extractant but without the adsorbent, for the reason that adsorbent can reduce damaging exposure of C. acetobutylicum to octanol. The strategy can improve total butanol production with respect to traditional culture approach by more than 2.5 fold and save energy for subsequent butanol recovery, which effects can potentially make the biobutanol production more economically practical.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhuoliang Ye
- School of Chemical Engineering, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, China
| | - Jingyi Song
- School of Chemical Engineering, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, China
| | - Enhao Zhu
- School of Chemical Engineering, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, China
| | - Xin Song
- School of Chemical Engineering, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, China
| | - Xiaohui Chen
- School of Chemical Engineering, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, China.,National Engineering Research Center for Chemical Fertilizer Catalyst, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, China
| | - Xiaoting Hong
- Key Laboratory of Recycling and Eco-treatment of Waste Biomass of Zhejiang Province, Zhejiang University of Science and Technology, Hangzhou, China
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Westh P, Borch K, Sørensen T, Tokin R, Kari J, Badino S, Cavaleiro MA, Røjel N, Christensen S, Vesterager CS, Schiano-di-Cola C. Thermoactivation of a cellobiohydrolase. Biotechnol Bioeng 2018; 115:831-838. [PMID: 29240229 DOI: 10.1002/bit.26513] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2017] [Revised: 11/21/2017] [Accepted: 12/04/2017] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
We have measured activity and substrate affinity of the thermostable cellobiohydrolase, Cel7A, from Rasamsonia emersonii over a broad range of temperatures. For the wild type enzyme, which does not have a Carbohydrate Binding Module (CBM), higher temperature only led to moderately increased activity against cellulose, and we ascribed this to a pronounced, temperature induced desorption of enzyme from the substrate surface. We also tested a "high affinity" variant of R. emersonii Cel7A with a linker and CBM from a related enzyme. At room temperature, the activity of the variant was similar to the wild type, but the variant was more accelerated by temperature and about two-fold faster around 70 °C. This better thermoactivation of the high-affinity variant could not be linked to differences in stability or the catalytic process, but coincided with less desorption as temperature increased. Based on these observations and earlier reports on moderate thermoactivation of cellulases, we suggest that better cellulolytic activity at industrially relevant temperatures may be attained by engineering improved substrate affinity into enzymes that already possess good thermostability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Westh
- Department of Science and Environment, INM, Universitetsvej 1, Roskilde, Denmark
| | | | - Trine Sørensen
- Department of Science and Environment, INM, Universitetsvej 1, Roskilde, Denmark
| | - Radina Tokin
- Department of Science and Environment, INM, Universitetsvej 1, Roskilde, Denmark
| | - Jeppe Kari
- Department of Science and Environment, INM, Universitetsvej 1, Roskilde, Denmark
| | - Silke Badino
- Department of Science and Environment, INM, Universitetsvej 1, Roskilde, Denmark
| | | | - Nanna Røjel
- Department of Science and Environment, INM, Universitetsvej 1, Roskilde, Denmark
| | - Stefan Christensen
- Department of Science and Environment, INM, Universitetsvej 1, Roskilde, Denmark
| | - Cynthia S Vesterager
- Department of Science and Environment, INM, Universitetsvej 1, Roskilde, Denmark
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Ravindran R, Jaiswal S, Abu-Ghannam N, Jaiswal AK. Evaluation of ultrasound assisted potassium permanganate pre-treatment of spent coffee waste. BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY 2017; 199:92-102. [PMID: 27866804 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2015.07.106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2015] [Revised: 07/29/2015] [Accepted: 07/30/2015] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
In the present study, novel pre-treatment for spent coffee waste (SCW) has been proposed which utilises the superior oxidising capacity of alkaline KMnO4 assisted by ultra-sonication. The pre-treatment was conducted for different exposure times (10, 20, 30 and 40min) using different concentrations of KMnO4 (1, 2, 3, 4, 5%w/v) at room temperature with solid/liquid ratio of 1:10. Pretreating SCW with 4% KMnO4 and exposing it to ultrasound for 20min resulted in 98% cellulose recovery and a maximum lignin removal of 46%. 1.7 fold increase in reducing sugar yield was obtained after enzymatic hydrolysis of KMnO4 pretreated SCW as compared to raw. SEM, XRD and FTIR analysis of the pretreated SCW revealed the various effects of pretreatment. Thermal behaviour of the pretreated substrate against the native biomass was also studied using DSC. Ultrasound-assisted potassium permanganate oxidation was found to be an effective pretreatment for SCW, and can be a used as a potential feedstock pretreatment strategy for bioethanol production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rajeev Ravindran
- School of Food Science and Environmental Health, College of Sciences and Health, Dublin Institute of Technology, Cathal Brugha Street, Dublin 1, Ireland
| | - Swarna Jaiswal
- Centre for Research in Engineering and Surface Technology, FOCAS Institute, Dublin Institute of Technology, Kevin Street, Dublin 8, Ireland
| | - Nissreen Abu-Ghannam
- School of Food Science and Environmental Health, College of Sciences and Health, Dublin Institute of Technology, Cathal Brugha Street, Dublin 1, Ireland
| | - Amit K Jaiswal
- School of Food Science and Environmental Health, College of Sciences and Health, Dublin Institute of Technology, Cathal Brugha Street, Dublin 1, Ireland.
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9
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Galkin MV, Smit AT, Subbotina E, Artemenko KA, Bergquist J, Huijgen WJJ, Samec JSM. Hydrogen-free catalytic fractionation of woody biomass. CHEMSUSCHEM 2016; 9:3280-3287. [PMID: 27860308 DOI: 10.1002/cssc.201600648] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2016] [Revised: 10/03/2016] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
The pulping industry could become a biorefinery if the lignin and hemicellulose components of the lignocellulose are valorized. Conversion of lignin into well-defined aromatic chemicals is still a major challenge. Lignin depolymerization reactions often occur in parallel with irreversible condensation reactions of the formed fragments. Here, we describe a strategy that markedly suppresses the undesired condensation pathways and allows to selectively transform lignin into a few aromatic compounds. Notably, applying this strategy to woody biomass at organosolv pulping conditions, the hemicellulose, cellulose, and lignin were separated and in parallel the lignin was transformed into aromatic monomers. In addition, we were able to utilize a part of the lignocellulose as an internal source of hydrogen for the reductive lignin transformations. We hope that the presented methodology will inspire researchers in the field of lignin valorization as well as pulp producers to develop more efficient biomass fractionation processes in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maxim V Galkin
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Stockholm University, 106 91, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Arjan T Smit
- Energy Research Centre of the Netherlands (ECN), Biomass & Energy Efficiency, Westerduinweg 3, 1755, LE, Petten, The Netherlands
| | - Elena Subbotina
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Stockholm University, 106 91, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Konstantin A Artemenko
- Analytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry-BMC, Uppsala University, 751 24, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Jonas Bergquist
- Analytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry-BMC, Uppsala University, 751 24, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Wouter J J Huijgen
- Energy Research Centre of the Netherlands (ECN), Biomass & Energy Efficiency, Westerduinweg 3, 1755, LE, Petten, The Netherlands
| | - Joseph S M Samec
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Stockholm University, 106 91, Stockholm, Sweden
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10
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Méndez Arias J, de Oliveira Moraes A, Modesto LFA, de Castro AM, Pereira Jr N. Addition of Surfactants and Non-Hydrolytic Proteins and Their Influence on Enzymatic Hydrolysis of Pretreated Sugarcane Bagasse. Appl Biochem Biotechnol 2016; 181:593-603. [DOI: 10.1007/s12010-016-2234-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2016] [Accepted: 08/29/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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11
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Ren NQ, Zhao L, Chen C, Guo WQ, Cao GL. A review on bioconversion of lignocellulosic biomass to H2: Key challenges and new insights. BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY 2016; 215:92-99. [PMID: 27090403 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2016.03.124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2015] [Revised: 03/21/2016] [Accepted: 03/22/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
With the increasing energy crisis and rising concern over climate change, the development of clean alternative energy sources is of great importance. Biohydrogen produced from lignocellulosic biomass is a promising candidate, because of its positives such as readily available, no harmful emissions, environment friendly, efficient, and renewable. However, obstacles still exist to enable the commercialization of biological hydrogen production from lignocellulosic biomass. Thus the objective of this work is to provide update information about the recent progress on lignocellulosic hydrogen conversion via dark fermentation. In this review, the most important technologies associated with lignocellulosic hydrogen fermentation were covered. Firstly, pretreatment methods for better utilization of lignocellulosic biomass are presented, at the same time, hydrolysis methods assisting to achieve efficient hydrogen fermentation were discussed. Afterwards, issues related to bioprocesses for hydrogen production purposes were presented. Additionally, the paper gave challenges and new insights of lignocellulosic biohydrogen production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nan-Qi Ren
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China.
| | - Lei Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China
| | - Chuan Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China
| | - Wan-Qian Guo
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China
| | - Guang-Li Cao
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China; Department of Life Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China
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12
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Lu Q, He Y, Liu X. Property Assessment of Steamed Bread Added with Cellulase by Using Fuzzy Mathematical Model. J Texture Stud 2015. [DOI: 10.1111/jtxs.12141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Qian Lu
- College of Food; Agricultural and Natural Resource Sciences; University of Minnesota; Eckles Ave. 55108 Saint Paul MN
| | - Yaqiang He
- College of Food Science; Henan University of Technology; High-tech Industrial Development Zone; Zhengzhou China
| | - Xiufang Liu
- College of Food Science; Henan University of Technology; High-tech Industrial Development Zone; Zhengzhou China
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Sørensen TH, Cruys-Bagger N, Windahl MS, Badino SF, Borch K, Westh P. Temperature Effects on Kinetic Parameters and Substrate Affinity of Cel7A Cellobiohydrolases. J Biol Chem 2015; 290:22193-202. [PMID: 26183777 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m115.658930] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2015] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
We measured hydrolytic rates of four purified cellulases in small increments of temperature (10-50 °C) and substrate loads (0-100 g/liter) and analyzed the data by a steady state kinetic model that accounts for the processive mechanism. We used wild type cellobiohydrolases (Cel7A) from mesophilic Hypocrea jecorina and thermophilic Rasamsonia emersonii and two variants of these enzymes designed to elucidate the role of the carbohydrate binding module (CBM). We consistently found that the maximal rate increased strongly with temperature, whereas the affinity for the insoluble substrate decreased, and as a result, the effect of temperature depended strongly on the substrate load. Thus, temperature had little or no effect on the hydrolytic rate in dilute substrate suspensions, whereas strong temperature activation (Q10 values up to 2.6) was observed at saturating substrate loads. The CBM had a dual effect on the activity. On one hand, it diminished the tendency of heat-induced desorption, but on the other hand, it had a pronounced negative effect on the maximal rate, which was 2-fold larger in variants without CBM throughout the investigated temperature range. We conclude that although the CBM is beneficial for affinity it slows down the catalytic process. Cel7A from the thermophilic organism was moderately more activated by temperature than the mesophilic analog. This is in accord with general theories on enzyme temperature adaptation and possibly relevant information for the selection of technical cellulases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Trine Holst Sørensen
- From Roskilde University, Nature, Systems, and Models, Research Unit for Functional Biomaterials, 1 Universitetsvej, Building 28, DK-4000 Roskilde, Denmark and
| | - Nicolaj Cruys-Bagger
- From Roskilde University, Nature, Systems, and Models, Research Unit for Functional Biomaterials, 1 Universitetsvej, Building 28, DK-4000 Roskilde, Denmark and
| | - Michael Skovbo Windahl
- From Roskilde University, Nature, Systems, and Models, Research Unit for Functional Biomaterials, 1 Universitetsvej, Building 28, DK-4000 Roskilde, Denmark and Novozymes A/S, Krogshøjvej 36, DK-2880 Bagsværd, Denmark
| | - Silke Flindt Badino
- From Roskilde University, Nature, Systems, and Models, Research Unit for Functional Biomaterials, 1 Universitetsvej, Building 28, DK-4000 Roskilde, Denmark and Novozymes A/S, Krogshøjvej 36, DK-2880 Bagsværd, Denmark
| | - Kim Borch
- Novozymes A/S, Krogshøjvej 36, DK-2880 Bagsværd, Denmark
| | - Peter Westh
- From Roskilde University, Nature, Systems, and Models, Research Unit for Functional Biomaterials, 1 Universitetsvej, Building 28, DK-4000 Roskilde, Denmark and
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