Immobilization of bacterial feruloyl esterase on mesoporous silica particles and enhancement of synthetic activity by hydrophobic-modified surface

Engineering thermostability of industrial enzymes for enhanced application performance

Thermostability is a key factor for the industrial application of enzymes. This review categorizes enzymes by their applications and discusses the importance of engineering thermostability for practical use. It summarizes fundamental theories and recent advancements in enzyme thermostability modification, including directed evolution, semi-rational design, and rational design. Directed evolution uses high-throughput screening to generate random mutations, while semi-rational design combines hotspot identification with screening. Rational design focuses on key residues to enhance stability by improving rigidity, foldability, and reducing aggregation. The review also covers rational strategies like engineering folding energy, surface charge, machine learning methods, and consensus design, along with tools that support these approaches. Practical examples are critically assessed to highlight the benefits and limitations of these strategies. Finally, the challenges and potential contributions of artificial intelligence in enzyme thermostability engineering are discussed.

Feruloyl Esterase (LaFae) from Lactobacillus acidophilus: Structural Insights and Functional Characterization for Application in Ferulic Acid Production

Ferulic acid and related hydroxycinnamic acids, used as antioxidants and preservatives in the food, cosmetic, pharmaceutical and biotechnology industries, are among the most abundant phenolic compounds present in plant biomass. Identification of novel compounds that can produce ferulic acid and hydroxycinnamic acids, that are safe and can be mass-produced, is critical for the sustainability of these industries. In this study, we aimed to obtain and characterize a feruloyl esterase (LaFae) from Lactobacillus acidophilus. Our results demonstrated that LaFae reacts with ethyl ferulate and can be used to effectively produce ferulic acid from wheat bran, rice bran and corn stalks. In addition, xylanase supplementation was found to enhance LaFae enzymatic hydrolysis, thereby augmenting ferulic acid production. To further investigate the active site configuration of LaFae, crystal structures of unliganded and ethyl ferulate-bound LaFae were determined at 2.3 and 2.19 Å resolutions, respectively. Structural analysis shows that a Phe34 residue, located at the active site entrance, acts as a gatekeeper residue and controls substrate binding. Mutating this Phe34 to Ala produced an approximately 1.6-fold increase in LaFae activity against p-nitrophenyl butyrate. Our results highlight the considerable application potential of LaFae to produce ferulic acid from plant biomass and agricultural by-products.

Adsorption-precipitation-cross-linking immobilization of GDSL-type esterase from Aspergillus niger GZUF36 by polydopamine-modified magnetic clarity tetroxide nanocouplings and its enzymatic characterization

Recombinant INANE1 (rINANE1), a recombinant intracellular GDSL-type esterase from Aspergillus niger GZUF36, has high acetate substrate specificity. Here, rINANE1 was successfully immobilized on polydopamine (PDA)-modified magnetic ferric oxide nanoparticles (Fe₃O₄NPs) by adsorption-precipitation-cross-linking to obtain cross-linked enzyme aggregate (CLEA)-rINANE1-Fe₃O₄@PDA. Fe₃O₄, Fe₃O₄@PDA, and CLEA-rINANE1-Fe₃O₄@PDA were characterized by scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, vibrating-sample magnetometry, Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, and zeta potential analysis. Upon immobilization, CLEA-rINANE1-Fe₃O₄@PDA, with a protein loading of 72.72 ± 1.01 mg/g, reached optimal activity recovery of 104.40 % ± 1.14 %. FTIR analysis showed that immobilization increased the relative content of β-folding in rINANE1 by 12.25 % and reduced irregular curl by 4.16 %, rendering the structure more orderly. Specifically, under an alkaline condition (pH 10), CLEA-rINANE1-Fe₃O₄@PDA performed over 100 % of initial activity. The optimum temperature increased by 5 °C, and over 55 % of the initial activity was observed after 12 h at 55 °C. CLEA-rINANE1-Fe₃O₄@PDA showed over 40 % of its relative activity, whereas free rINANE1 showed <10 % in acetonitrile. In addition, the relative activity of CLEA-rINANE1-Fe₃O₄@PDA was retained at about 80 % after eight cycles and maintained at 109 % after 45 days. The PDA-modified magnetic ferrite nanoparticles exhibited excellent stability and recyclability, providing a new avenue for developing industrial biocatalysts.

Enantioselective resolution of (R,S)-DMPM to prepare (R)-DMPM by an adsorbed-covalent crosslinked esterase PAE07 from Pseudochrobactrum asaccharolyticum WZZ003

(R)-N-(2,6-dimethylphenyl) aminopropionic acid methyl ester ((R)-DMPM) is an important chiral intermediate of the fungicide N-(2,6-Dimethylphenyl)-N-(methoxyacetyl)-alanine methyl ester ((R)-Metalaxyl). In this study, (1) D3520 (macroporous acrylic anion resin), selected from the ten resins, was used to immobilize the esterase from Pseudochrobactrum asaccharolyticum WZZ003 (PAE07) for resoluting the (R,S)-DMPM to obtain (R)-DMPM. (2) Up to 20 g/L PAE07 could be immobilized onto D3520 with a high enzymatic activity of 32.4 U/g. Moreover, the Km and Vmax values of 19.1 mM and 2.8 mM/min for D3520-immobilized PAE07 indicated its high activity and stereoselectivity. (3) The optimal temperature and pH for the immobilized PAE07 were 40 ℃ and 8.0, and substrate concentration was up to 0.35 M. After 15 h reaction, the conversion rate from (R,S)-DMPM to (R)-DMPM was 48.0% and the e.e.p and E values were 99.5% and 1393.0, respectively. In scale-up resolution, 200 g/L substrate and 12.5 g immobilized esterase PAE07 condition, a conversion rate from substrate to product of 48.1% and a product e.e.p of 98% were obtained within 12 h, with the activity of immobilized PAE07 retained 80.2% after 5 cycles of reactions. These results indicated that the D3520-immobilized esterase PAE07 had great potential for enzymatic resolution of (R,S)-DMPM to prepare (R)-Metalaxyl.

Biofouling control potential of quorum quenching anaerobes in lab-scale anaerobic membrane bioreactors: Foulants profile and microbial dynamics

Indigenously isolated anaerobes encoding four quorum quenching (QQ) enzymes were applied in immobilized- and bioaugmented forms for their implications on membrane foulants, microbial taxa, and biofouling control. Two identical anaerobic membrane bioreactors (AnMBRs) with different immobilizing media, i.e. silica-alginate (AnMBR-Si) and hollow fiber-alginate (AnMBR-Hf), were sequentially operated for two conventional and three QQ based phases. The synergistic addition of QQ anaerobes in free cells and the immobilized form prolonged the membrane filtration operation by 172 ± 29% and 284 ± 12% in AnMBR-Si and AnMBR-Hf, respectively. Biocake with low surface coverage was prominent during QQ application compared to conventional phases. Despite the better control of AHLs (3OC6-, C6-, 3OC8, C8, and C10-HSL) and AI-2 at various points of QQ phases, the QQ consortium could not maintain a low concentration of signals for longer period. Therefrom, quenching of targeted signal molecules instigate the dominance of microbial species bearing non-targeted quorum sensing mechanism. The QQ significantly altered the biofilm-forming community in mixed liquor, while the members with robust signal transduction systems became dominant to counteract the QQ mechanism and were the ultimate cause of biofouling. The improved methane content in biogas and increased methanogens composition during QQ phases demonstrated the synergism of exogenous and immobilized QQ as the most viable option for long-term AnMBR operation.

Esterases as emerging biocatalysts: Mechanistic insights, genomic and metagenomic, immobilization, and biotechnological applications

Esterase enzymes are a family of hydrolases that catalyze the breakdown and formation of ester bonds. Esterases have gained a prominent position in today's world's industrial enzymes market. Due to their unique biocatalytic attributes, esterases contribute to environmentally sustainable design approaches, including biomass degradation, food and feed industry, dairy, clothing, agrochemical (herbicides, insecticides), bioremediation, biosensor development, anticancer, antitumor, gene therapy, and diagnostic purposes. Esterases can be isolated by a diverse range of mammalian tissues, animals, and microorganisms. The isolation of extremophilic esterases increases the interest of researchers in the extraction and utilization of these enzymes at the industrial level. Genomic, metagenomic, and immobilization techniques have opened innovative ways to extract esterases and utilize them for a longer time to take advantage of their beneficial activities. The current study discusses the types of esterases, metagenomic studies for exploring new esterases, and their biomedical applications in different industrial sectors.

Improvement of probiotic viability through the design of novel biomaterials using coffee pulp wastes and Lactobacillus rhamnosus

The immobilization of bacteria cells has shown to be an efficient technology to improve cell viability. This study used lyophilized and pulverized coffee pulp (LPC) and LPC functionalized with theobromine at two concentrations, 3.1 w/w and 2.4 w/w named as LPF1 and LPF2, respectively, to immobilize Lactobacillus rhamnosus ATCC 53103 cells (biomaterials) and increase the viability of the cell at storage and gastrointestinal conditions. To characterize the biomaterials, SEM, Dynamic Light Scattering, TGA, , FTIR and Isoeletrc Point measurements (or zeta potential measurements) were carried out. To evaluate the effectiveness of immobilization, cell viability as a function of storage time and under simulated gastrointestinal conditions was evaluated. Regarding the characterization of the materials, the particle sizes were 21.7 to 334.4 nm and they experienced mass losses of less than 10% at 100°C. The FTIR indicated the presence of functional groups related to caffeine, chlorogenic acid, sucrose, arabinogalactans, carbohydrates, and proteins in all biomaterials. The sorption kinetic parameters showed an adsorptive capacity between 3.0 × 10⁹ and 8.0 × 10⁹ CFU.g^-1, being LPF1 the best materials to immobilize the cells, associated with LPF1 surface properties. The viability was higher for immobilized cells than for free cells, when left in storage and under simulated gastric conditions. Finally, the biomaterials could be used in the preparation of probiotic diets based on lactobacilli. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study regarding the use of waste from coffee agribusiness to develop probiotic biocarriers which opens up possibilities for future developments.

Approaches for the enzymatic synthesis of alkyl hydroxycinnamates and applications thereof

Alkyl hydroxycinnamates (AHs) is a group of molecules of biotechnological interest due to their cosmetic, food, and pharmaceutical applications. Among their most interesting uses are as UV protectants, skin depigmentation agents, and antioxidant ingredients which are often claimed for their antitumoral potential. Nowadays, many sustainable enzymatic approaches using low-cost starting materials are available and interesting immobilization techniques are helping to increase the reuse of the biocatalysts, allowing the intensification of the processes and increasing AHs accessibility. Here a convenient summary of AHs most interesting biological activities and possible applications is presented. A deeper analysis of the art state to obtain AHs, focusing on most employed enzymatic synthesis approaches, their sustainability, acyl donors relevance, and most interesting enzyme immobilization strategies is provided.Key points• Most interesting alkyl hydroxycinnamates applications are summarized.• Enzymatic approaches to obtain alkyl hydroxycinnamates are critically discussed.• Outlook of enzyme immobilization strategies to attain alkyl hydroxycinnamates.

Effects of morphology and pore size of mesoporous silicas on the efficiency of an immobilized enzyme

An investigation is performed into the efficiency of the Streptomyces griseus HUT 6037 enzyme immobilized in three different mesoporous silicas, namely mesoporous silica film, mesocellular foam, and rod-like SBA-15. It is shown that for all three supports, the pH value changes the surface charge and charge density and hence determines the maximum loading capacity of the enzyme. The products of the enzyme hydrolytic reaction are analyzed by ¹H-NMR. The results show that among the three silica supports, the mesoporous silica film (with a channel length in the range of 60–100 nm) maximizes the accessibility of the immobilized enzyme. The loading capacity of the enzyme is up to 95% at pH 7 and the activity of the immobilized enzyme is maintained for more than 15 days when using a silica film support. The order of the activity of the enzyme immobilized in different mesoporous silica supports is: mesoporous silica film > mesocellular foam > rod-like SBA-15. Furthermore, the immobilized enzyme can be easily separated from the reaction solution via simple filtration or centrifugation methods and re-used for hydrolytic reaction as required.

Mesoporous silica films were used as supports with high loading capacity and enzyme activity.

Hierarchically porous magnetic Fe3O4/Fe-MOF used as an effective platform for enzyme immobilization: a kinetic and thermodynamic study of structure–activity

Fe₃O₄/Fe-MOF integrate magnetic characteristics and hierarchical porous structure for supporting chloroperoxidase (CPO) or horseradish peroxidase (HRP).

Comparison of Enzyme Secretion and Ferulic Acid Production by Escherichia coli Expressing Different Lactobacillus Feruloyl Esterases

Construction of recombinant Escherichia coli strains carrying feruloyl esterase genes for secretory expression offers an attractive way to facilitate enzyme purification and one-step production of ferulic acid from agricultural waste. A total of 10 feruloyl esterases derived from nine Lactobacillus species were expressed in E. coli BL21 (DE3) to investigate their secretion and ferulic acid production. Extracellular activity determination showed all these Lactobacillus feruloyl esterases could be secreted out of E. coli cells. However, protein analysis indicated that they could be classified as three types. The first type presented a low secretion level, including feruloyl esterases derived from Lactobacillus acidophilus and Lactobacillus johnsonii. The second type showed a high secretion level, including feruloyl esterases derived from Lactobacillus amylovorus, Lactobacillus crispatus, Lactobacillus gasseri, and Lactobacillus helveticus. The third type also behaved a high secretion level but easy degradation, including feruloyl esterases derived from Lactobacillus farciminis, Lactobacillus fermentum, and Lactobacillus reuteri. Moreover, these recombinant E. coli strains could directly release ferulic acid from agricultural waste. The highest yield was 140 μg on the basis of 0.1 g de-starched wheat bran by using E. coli expressed L. amylovorus feruloyl esterase. These results provided a solid basis for the production of feruloyl esterase and ferulic acid.

The role of fibril structure and surface hydrophobicity in secondary nucleation of amyloid fibrils

Alzheimer’s disease affects a rapidly growing number of individuals worldwide. Key unresolved questions relate to the onset and propagation of the disease, linked to the self-assembly of amyloid β peptide into fibrillar and smaller aggregates. This study investigates the propagation of aggregates of amyloid β peptide and asks whether hydrophobic molecular features observed on the fibril surface correlate with its ability to catalyze the formation of new aggregates. This question is motivated by the associated formation of intermediate forms that are toxic to neuronal cells. The results imply that surface catalysis is independent of surface details but requires that the monomers that form the new aggregate can adopt the structure of the parent aggregate without steric clashes.

Crystals, nanoparticles, and fibrils catalyze the generation of new aggregates on their surface from the same type of monomeric building blocks as the parent assemblies. This secondary nucleation process can be many orders of magnitude faster than primary nucleation. In the case of amyloid fibrils associated with Alzheimer’s disease, this process leads to the multiplication and propagation of aggregates, whereby short-lived oligomeric intermediates cause neurotoxicity. Understanding the catalytic activity is a fundamental goal in elucidating the molecular mechanisms of Alzheimer’s and associated diseases. Here we explore the role of fibril structure and hydrophobicity by asking whether the V18, A21, V40, and A42 side chains which are exposed on the Aβ42 fibril surface as continuous hydrophobic patches play a role in secondary nucleation. Single, double, and quadruple serine substitutions were made. Kinetic analyses of aggregation data at multiple monomer concentrations reveal that all seven mutants retain the dominance of secondary nucleation as the main mechanism of fibril proliferation. This finding highlights the generality of secondary nucleation and its independence of the detailed molecular structure. Cryo-electron micrographs reveal that the V18S substitution causes fibrils to adopt a distinct morphology with longer twist distance than variants lacking this substitution. Self- and cross-seeding data show that surface catalysis is only efficient between peptides of identical morphology, indicating a templating role of secondary nucleation with structural conversion at the fibril surface. Our findings thus provide clear evidence that the propagation of amyloid fibril strains is possible even in systems dominated by secondary nucleation rather than fragmentation.