Poly(brilliant cresyl blue)-carbonnanotube modified electrodes for determination of NADH and fabrication of ethanol dehydrogenase-based biosensor

CuxO nanorods with excellent regenerable NADH peroxidase mimics and its application for selective and sensitive fluorimetric ethanol sensing

Cu_xO nanorods with excellent NADH peroxidase mimics were synthesized by a simple hydrothermal method. The catalytic oxidation of NADH to NAD cofactor strictly follows the enzymatic kinetics with high catalytic rate and strong affinity. The catalytic mechanism of Cu_xO NRs was that in the presence of hydrogen peroxide, the catalytic oxidizing NADH to NAD ⁺ involving with O₂^.-.anion production, making it realistic to mutually convert between coenzymes. Considering that the mutual transformation of NADH/NAD cofactors plays an important role in biological function, combination of Cu_xO NRs with alcohol dehydrogenase, a highly selective method for fluorimetric detection of ethanol was established. The as-proposed sensing platform is capable of dectecting alcohol with the limit of detection of 26.7 μM (S/N = 3) and applied in practical sample with satisfied accuracy and recovery. The as-developed regenerable NADH peroxidase mimics would also cast lights in biocatalysis, synthetic biology and bioenergy.

State of the Art in Alcohol Sensing with 2D Materials

Since the discovery of graphene, the star among new materials, there has been a surge of attention focused on the monatomic and monomolecular sheets which can be obtained by exfoliation of layered compounds. Such materials are known as two-dimensional (2D) materials and offer enormous versatility and potential. The ultimate single atom, or molecule, thickness of the 2D materials sheets provides the highest surface to weight ratio of all the nanomaterials, which opens the door to the design of more sensitive and reliable chemical sensors. The variety of properties and the possibility of tuning the chemical and surface properties of the 2D materials increase their potential as selective sensors, targeting chemical species that were previously difficult to detect. The planar structure and the mechanical flexibility of the sheets allow new sensor designs and put 2D materials at the forefront of all the candidates for wearable applications. When developing sensors for alcohol, the response time is an essential factor for many industrial and forensic applications, particularly when it comes to hand-held devices. Here, we review recent developments in the applications of 2D materials in sensing alcohols along with a study on parameters that affect the sensing capabilities. The review also discusses the strategies used to develop the sensor along with their mechanisms of sensing and provides a critique of the current limitations of 2D materials-based alcohol sensors and an outlook for the future research required to overcome the challenges.

Advances in the design of nanomaterial-based electrochemical affinity and enzymatic biosensors for metabolic biomarkers: A review

This review (with 340 refs) focuses on methods for specific and sensitive detection of metabolites for diagnostic purposes, with particular emphasis on electrochemical nanomaterial-based sensors. It also covers novel candidate metabolites as potential biomarkers for diseases such as neurodegenerative diseases, autism spectrum disorder and hepatitis. Following an introduction into the field of metabolic biomarkers, a first major section classifies electrochemical biosensors according to the bioreceptor type (enzymatic, immuno, apta and peptide based sensors). A next section covers applications of nanomaterials in electrochemical biosensing (with subsections on the classification of nanomaterials, electrochemical approaches for signal generation and amplification using nanomaterials, and on nanomaterials as tags). A next large sections treats candidate metabolic biomarkers for diagnosis of diseases (in the context with metabolomics), with subsections on biomarkers for neurodegenerative diseases, autism spectrum disorder and hepatitis. The Conclusion addresses current challenges and future perspectives. Graphical abstract This review focuses on the recent developments in electrochemical biosensors based on the use of nanomaterials for the detection of metabolic biomarkers. It covers the critical metabolites for some diseases such as neurodegenerative diseases, autism spectrum disorder and hepatitis.

Advances in developing rapid, reliable and portable detection systems for alcohol

Development of portable, reliable, sensitive, simple, and inexpensive detection system for alcohol has been an instinctive demand not only in traditional brewing, pharmaceutical, food and clinical industries but also in rapidly growing alcohol based fuel industries. Highly sensitive, selective, and reliable alcohol detections are currently amenable typically through the sophisticated instrument based analyses confined mostly to the state-of-art analytical laboratory facilities. With the growing demand of rapid and reliable alcohol detection systems, an all-round attempt has been made over the past decade encompassing various disciplines from basic and engineering sciences. Of late, the research for developing small-scale portable alcohol detection system has been accelerated with the advent of emerging miniaturization techniques, advanced materials and sensing platforms such as lab-on-chip, lab-on-CD, lab-on-paper etc. With these new inter-disciplinary approaches along with the support from the parallel knowledge growth on rapid detection systems being pursued for various targets, the progress on translating the proof-of-concepts to commercially viable and environment friendly portable alcohol detection systems is gaining pace. Here, we summarize the progress made over the years on the alcohol detection systems, with a focus on recent advancement towards developing portable, simple and efficient alcohol sensors.

Electrocatalytic oxidation behavior of NADH at Pt/Fe3O4/reduced-graphene oxide nanohybrids modified glassy carbon electrode and its determination

We have developed Pt/Fe3O4/reduced-graphene oxide nanohybrids modified glassy carbon (Pt/Fe3O4/RGO/GC) electrode as a novel system for the preparation of electrochemical sensing platform. Characterization of as-made composite was determined using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), atomic force microscopy (AFM) and energy-dispersive analysis of X-ray (EDAX) where the Pt, Fe, Si, O and C elements were observed. The Pt/Fe3O4/RGO/GC electrode was characterized by cyclic voltammetry (CV) and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS). Due to the synergistic effect between Pt, Fe3O4 and RGO, the nanohybrid exhibited excellent performance toward dihydronicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH) oxidation in 0.1M phosphate buffer solution, pH7.0, with a low detection limit of 5nM.

Synergistic effect of pyrroloquinoline quinone and graphene nano-interface for facile fabrication of sensitive NADH biosensor

A self-assembly composite of graphene-pyrroloquinoline quinone (PQQ) was fabricated and modified on glassy carbon electrode (GCE) for sensitive detection of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH). Chitosan (CTS) was applied to disperse graphene to form a stable robust film on GCE. A synergistic effect between PQQ and graphene was observed during the electrocatalytic oxidation of NADH, with about 260mV reduction in the oxidation potential and 2.5-fold increase in the oxidation current compared with those on the bare GCE. The electrochemical sensors based on the modified electrodes allowed the detection of NADH with a good linear dependence from 0.32 to 220µM with a high sensitivity of 0.421µAµM^-1cm^-2 and a low detection limit of 0.16µM (S/N=3). It could also eliminate the interference of electroactive substances like ascorbic acid (AA), uric acid, and dopamine and its derivatives. The outstanding performances of graphene-PQQ/CTS composite capable of improving the electrical conductivity and accelerating the electron transport suggested its promising applications for design of different graphene based composites used in electrochemical sensing and energy fields.

Conducting polymer and its composite materials based electrochemical sensor for Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide (NADH)

Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide (NADH) is an important coenzyme in the human body that participates in many metabolic reactions. The impact of abnormal concentrations of NADH significantly causes different diseases in human body. Electrochemical detection of NADH using bare electrode is a challenging task especially in the presence of main electroactive interferences such as ascorbic acid (AA), uric acid (UA) and dopamine (DA). Modified electrodes have been widely explored to overcome the problems of poor sensitivity and selectivity occurred from bare electrodes. This review gives an overview on the progress of using conducting polymers, polyelectrolyte and its composites (co-polymer, carbonaceous, metal, metal oxide and clay) based modified electrodes for the sensing of NADH. In addition, developments on the fabrication of numerous conducting polymer composites based modified electrodes are clearly described.

Electrochemical sensors and biosensors based on redox polymer/carbon nanotube modified electrodes: a review

The aim of this review is to present the contributions to the development of electrochemical sensors and biosensors based on polyphenazine or polytriphenylmethane redox polymers together with carbon nanotubes (CNT) during recent years. Phenazine polymers have been widely used in analytical applications due to their inherent charge transport properties and electrocatalytic effects. At the same time, since the first report on a CNT-based sensor, their application in the electroanalytical chemistry field has demonstrated that the unique structure and properties of CNT are ideal for the design of electrochemical (bio)sensors. We describe here that the specific combination of phenazine/triphenylmethane polymers with CNT leads to an improved performance of the resulting sensing devices, because of their complementary electrical, electrochemical and mechanical properties, and also due to synergistic effects. The preparation of polymer/CNT modified electrodes will be presented together with their electrochemical and surface characterization, with emphasis on the contribution of each component on the overall properties of the modified electrodes. Their importance in analytical chemistry is demonstrated by the numerous applications based on polymer/CNT-driven electrocatalytic effects, and their analytical performance as (bio) sensors is discussed.

A doped polyaniline modified electrode amperometric biosensor for gluconic acid determination in grapes

In winemaking gluconic acid is an important marker for quantitative evaluation of grape infection by Botrytis cinerea. A screen-printed amperometric bienzymatic sensor for the determination of gluconic acid based on gluconate kinase (GK) and 6-phospho-D-gluconate dehydrogenase (6PGDH) coimmobilized onto polyaniline/poly (2-acrylamido-2-methyl-1-propanesulfonic acid; PANI-PAAMPSA) is reported in this study. The conductive polymer electrodeposed on the working electrode surface allowed the detection of NADH at low potential (0.1 V) with a linear range from 4 × 10⁻³ to 1 mM (R² = 0.99) and a sensitivity of 419.44 nA·mM⁻¹. The bienzymatic sensor has been optimized with regard to GK/6PGDH enzymatic unit ratio and ATP/NADP⁺ molar ratio which resulted equal to 0.33 and 1.2, respectively. Under these conditions a sensitivity of 255.2 nA·mM⁻¹, a limit of detection of 5 μM and a Relative Standard Deviation (RSD) of 4.2% (n = 5) have been observed. Finally, the biosensor has been applied for gluconic acid measurements in must grape samples and the matrix effect has been taken into consideration. The results have been compared with those obtained on the same samples with a commercial kit based on a spectrophotometric enzyme assay and were in good agreement, showing the capability of the bienzymatic PANI-PAAMPSA biosensor for gluconic acid measurements and thus for the evaluation of Botrytis cinerea infection in grapes.

Facilitation of high-rate NADH electrocatalysis using electrochemically activated carbon materials

Electrochemical activation of glassy carbon, carbon paper and functionalized carbon nanotubes via high-applied-potential cyclic voltammetry leads to the formation of adsorbed, redox active functional groups and increased active surface area. Electrochemically activated carbon electrodes display enhanced activity toward nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH) oxidation, and more importantly, dramatically improved adsorption of bioelectrochemically active azine dyes. Adsorption of methylene green on an electroactivated carbon electrode yields a catalyst layer that is 1.8-fold more active toward NADH oxidation than an electrode prepared using electropolymerized methylene green. Stability studies using cyclic voltammetry indicate 70% activity retention after 4000 cycles. This work further facilitates the electrocatalysis of NADH oxidation for bioconversion, biosensor and bioenergy processes.

Bioinspired polydopamine as the scaffold for the active AuNPs anchoring and the chemical simultaneously reduced graphene oxide: characterization and the enhanced biosensing application

We report here an efficient approach to enhance the performance of biosensing platform based on graphene or graphene derivate. Initially, graphene oxides (GO) nanosheets were reduced and surface functionalized by one-step oxidative polymerization of dopamine in basic solution at environment friendly condition to obtain the polydopamine (Pdop) modified reduced graphene oxides (PDRGO). The bioinspired surface was further used as a support to anchor active gold nanoparticles (AuNPs). The morphology and structure of the as-prepared AuNPs/PDRGO nanocomposite were investigated by field-emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), Fourier transform-infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR). Electrochemical studies demonstrate that the as-prepared AuNPs/PDRGO hybrid materials possess excellent electrochemical properties and electrocatalytic activity toward the oxidation of NADH at low potential (0.1 V vs. SCE) with the fast response (15s) and the broad linear range (5.0 × 10(-8)-4.2 × 10(-5)M). Thus, this AuNPs/PDRGO nanocomposite can be further used to fabricate a sensitive alcohol biosensor using alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH), by simply incorporating the specific enzyme within the composite matrix with the aid of chitosan (Chit).

Fe3O4 magnetic nanoparticles/reduced graphene oxide nanosheets as a novel electrochemical and bioeletrochemical sensing platform

We have developed Fe3O4 magnetic nanoparticles/reduced graphene oxide nanosheets modified glassy carbon (Fe3O4/r-GO/GC) electrode as a novel system for the preparation of electrochemical sensing platform. Decorating Fe3O4 nanoparticles on graphene sheets was performed via a facile one-step chemical reaction strategy, where the reduction of GO and the in-situ generation of Fe3O4 nanoparticles occurred simultaneously. Characterization of as-made nanocomposite using X-ray diffraction (XRD), transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and alternative gradient force magnetometry (AGFM) clearly demonstrate the successful attachment of monodisperse Fe3O4 nanoparticles to graphene sheets. Electrochemical studies revealed that the Fe3O4/r-GO/GC electrode possess excellent electrocatalytic activities toward the low potential oxidation of NADH (0.05 V vs. Ag/AgCl) as well as the catalytic reduction of O2 and H2O2 at reduced overpotentials. Via immobilization of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) as a model dehydrogenase enzyme onto the Fe3O4/r-GO/GC electrode surface, the ability of modified electrode for biosensing lactate was demonstrated. In addition, using differential pulse voltammetry (DPV) to investigate the electrochemical oxidation behavior of ascorbic acid (AA), dopamine (DA) and uric acid (UA) at Fe3O4/r-GO/GC electrode, the high electrocatalytic activity of the modified electrode toward simultaneous detection of these compounds was indicated. Finally, based on the strong electrocatalytic action of Fe3O4/r-GO/GC electrode toward both oxidation and reduction of nitrite, a sensitive amperometric sensor for nitrite determination was proposed. The Fe3O4/r-GO hybrid presented here showing favorable electrochemical features may hold great promise to the development of electrochemical sensors, molecular bioelectronic devices, biosensors and biofuel cells.

One-step fabrication of integrated disposable biosensor based on ADH/NAD+/meldola's blue/graphitized mesoporous carbons/chitosan nanobiocomposite for ethanol detection

A novel strategy to simplify the dehydrogenase-based electrochemical biosensor fabrication through one-step drop-coating nanobiocomposite on a screen printed electrode (SPE) was developed. The nanobiocomposite was prepared by successively adding graphitized mesoporous carbons (GMCs), meldola's blue (MDB), alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) and cofactor nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD(+)) in chitosan (CS) solution. MDB/GMCs/CS film was prepared. Cyclic voltammetry measurements demonstrated that MDB was strongly adsorbed on GMCs. After optimizing the concentration of MDB and the working potential, the MDB/GMCs/CS film presented a fast amperometric response (5s), excellent sensitivity (10.36 nA μM(-1)), wide linear range (10-410 μM) toward NADH and without any other interference signals (such as AA, UA, DA, H2O2 and metal ions). Furthermore, concentrations of ADH and NAD(+) in nanobiocomposite and the detection conditions (temperature and pH) were also optimized. The constructed disposable ethanol biosensor showed an excellent linear response ranged from 0.5 to 15 mM with high sensitivity (67.28 nA mM(-1)) and a low limit of detection (80 μM) and a remarkable long-term stability (40 days). The intra-batch and inter-batch variation coefficients were both less than 5% (n=5). The ethanol recovery test demonstrated that the proposed biosensor offered a remarkable and accurate method for ethanol detection in the real blood samples.

Electrocatalytic oxidation of NADH using a pencil graphite electrode modified with quercetin

In the present study, the electrocatalytic oxidation of reduced β nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH) was investigated using a pencil graphite electrode modified with quercetin (PGE/QH(2)). The PGE/QH(2) was prepared through two steps: (i) the pre-treatment of PGE at 1.40 V vs. Ag|AgCl|KCl((sat.)) in pH 7.0 phosphate buffer containing 0.1 M KCl for 60s and (ii) adsorption of QH(2) on the PGE via immersion of PGE into a 1.0mM QH(2) solution (in ethanol) for 60s. Cyclic voltammetric studies show that the peak potential of NADH oxidation shifts from +500 mV at bare PGE to +300 mV at PGE/QH(2). The electrocatalytic currents obtained from amperometric measurements at +300 mV vs. Ag|AgCl|KCl((sat.)) and in phosphate buffer solution at pH 7.0 containing 0.1M KCl were linearly related to the concentration of NADH. Linear calibration plots are obtained in the concentration range from 0.5 μM to 100 μM. The limit of detection was found to be 0.15 μM.

Detection of NADH and ethanol at a graphite electrode modified with titania sol-gel/Meldola’s Blue/MWCNT/Nafion nanocomposite film

For electrocatalytic determination of NADH, a graphite electrode modified with titania sol-gel/Meldola’s Blue/MWCNT/Nafion nanocomposite was proposed. The composition of the matrix film was optimised in terms of the content of carbon nanotubes and Nafion. Incorporation of a redox mediator, Meldola’s Blue, into the nanocomposite film enabled electrocatalytic determination of NADH at a low potential, −50 mV. For determination of ethanol, alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) was immobilized into the matrix layer. Experimental conditions affecting the biosensor response were examined, including enzyme loading, temperature of measurement and pH of background electrolyte. Assessments of the analytical characteristics of the biosensor were performed with respect to sensitivity, limit of detection, operational stability, repeatability and reproducibility. The proposed biosensor showed electrocatalytic activity toward oxidation of ethanol with sensitivity of 2.24 µA L mmol−1, linear range from 0.05 to 1.1 mmol L−1, and limit of detection of 25 µmol L−1. The apparent Michaelis-Menten constant was 1.24 mmol L−1, indicating a high biological affinity of ADH/titania sol-gel/Meldola’s Blue/MWCNT/Nafion electrode for ethanol. The developed biosensor was tested in determinations of ethanol content in alcoholic beverages.

Electrocatalytic oxidation of NADH at electrogenerated NAD+ oxidation product immobilized onto multiwalled carbon nanotubes/ionic liquid nanocomposite: application to ethanol biosensing

The multiwalled carbon nanotubes/N-butyl-N-methyl-pyrolydinium-bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide [C(4)mpyr][NTf(2)] ionic liquid (MWCNTs/IL) modified glassy carbon (GC) electrode has been utilized as a platform to immobilize electrogenerated NAD(+) oxidation products (Ox-P(NAD(+))). During potential cycling, the adenine moiety of NAD(+) molecule is oxidized and gives rise to generation of a redox active system that shows great electrocatalytic activity toward NADH oxidation. The cyclic voltammetric results indicated the ability of MWCNTs/IL/Ox-P(NAD(+)) modified GC electrode to catalyze the oxidation of NADH at a very low potential (0.05 V vs. Ag/AgCl) and subsequently, a substantial decrease in the overpotential by about 600 mV compared with the bare GC electrode. This modified electrode thus allowed highly sensitive amperometric detection of NADH with a very low limit of detection (2 × 10(-8) mol L(-1)), low applied potential (+0.05 V) at concentration range up to 4.2 × 10(-5) mol L(-1) and minimum of surface fouling. High ability of MWCNTs/IL/Ox-P(NAD(+)) to promote electron transfer between NADH and the electrode suggested a new promising biocompatible platform for development of dehydrogenase-based amperometric biosensors. With alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) as a model enzyme, ethanol sensing ability of the proposed system was examined. The amperometric response of the biosensor increased linearly with increasing ethanol concentration in two concentration ranges, 5 × 10(-6)-6 × 10(-5) and 6 × 10(-5)-9 × 10(-4) mol L(-1) with detection limit of 5 × 10(-7) mol L(-1) and rapid response of 10s. Furthermore, the interference effects of redox active species, such as ascorbic acid, uric acid, glucose and acetaminophen for the proposed biosensor are negligible. Finally, the ability of the proposed biosensor for detection of ethanol in real complex samples was successfully demonstrated.

Low potential detection of NADH based on Fe₃O₄ nanoparticles/multiwalled carbon nanotubes composite: fabrication of integrated dehydrogenase-based lactate biosensor

Fe(3)O(4) magnetic nanoparticles were in situ loaded on the surface of multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) by a simple coprecipitation procedure. The resulting Fe(3)O(4)/MWCNTs nanocomposite brings new capabilities for electrochemical sensing by combining the advantages of Fe(3)O(4) magnetic nanoparticles and MWCNTs. It was found that Fe(3)O(4) has redox properties similar to those of frequently used mediators used for electron transfer between NADH and electrode. The cyclic voltammetric results indicated the ability of Fe(3)O(4)/MWCNTs modified GC electrode to catalyze the oxidation of NADH at a very low potential (0.0 mV vs. Ag/AgCl) and subsequently, a substantial decrease in the overpotential by about 650 mV compared with the bare GC electrode. The catalytic oxidation current allows the stable and selective amperometric detection of NADH at an applied potential of 0.0 mV (Ag/AgCl) with a detection limit of 0.3 μM and linear response up to 300 μM. This modified electrode can be used as an efficient transducer in the design of biosensors based on coupled dehydrogenase enzymes. Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) and NAD(+) were subsequently immobilized onto the Fe(3)O(4)/MWCNTs nanocomposite film by covalent bond formation between the amine groups of enzyme or NAD(+) and the carboxylic acid groups of the Fe(3)O(4)/MWCNT film. Differential pulse voltammetric detection of lactate on Fe(3)O(4)/MWCNT/LDH/NAD(+) modified GC electrode gives linear responses over the concentration range of 50-500 μM with the detection limit of 5 μM and sensitivity of 7.67 μA mM(-1). Furthermore, the applicability of the sensor for the analysis of lactate concentration in human serum samples has been successfully demonstrated.

Electrocatalytic reaction of hydrogen peroxide and NADH based on poly(neutral red) and FAD hybrid film

A simple method to immobilize poly(neutral red) (PNR) and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) hybrid film (PNR/FAD) by cyclic voltammetry is proposed. The PNR/FAD hybrid film can be easily prepared on an electrode surface involving electropolymerization of neutral red (NR) monomers and the electrostatic interaction between the positively charged PNR and the negatively charged FAD. It exhibits electroactive, stable, surface-confined, pH-dependent, nano-sized, and compatible properties. It provides good electrocatalytic properties to various species. It shows a sensitivity of 5.4 μA mM(-1) cm(-2) and 21.5 μA mM(-1) cm(-2) for hydrogen peroxide (H(2)O(2)) and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH) with the linear range of 0.1 μM-39 mM and 5 × 10(-5) to 2.5 × 10(-4) M, respectively. It shows another linear range of 48.8-355.5 mM with the sensitivity of 12.3 μA mM(-1) cm(-2) for H(2)O(2). In particular, the PNR/FAD hybrid film has potential to replace some hemoproteins to be a cathode of biofuel cells and provide the biosensing system for glucose and ethanol.