Analogous modified DNA probe and immune competition method-based electrochemical biosensor for RNA modification

Electrochemical detection of FTO with N3-kethoxal labeling and MazF cleavage

N6-Methyladenosine (m6A) is a prevalent modification in eukaryotic mRNAs and is linked to various human cancers. The fat mass and obesity-associated protein (FTO), a key m6A demethylase, is crucial in m6A regulation, affecting many biological processes and diseases. Detecting FTO is vital for clinical and research applications. Our study leverages the specific cleavage properties of the MazF endoribonuclease to design an electrochemical method with signal amplification guided by streptavidin-horseradish peroxidase (SA-HRP), intended for FTO detection. Initially, the compound N3-kethoxal is employed for its reversible tagging ability, selectively attaching to guanine (G) bases. Subsequently, dibenzocyclooctyne polyethylene glycol biotin (DBCO-PEG4-Biotin), is introduced through a reaction with N3-kethoxal. HRP is then employed to catalyze the redox system to enhance the current response further. A promising linear correlation between the peak current and the FTO concentration was observed within the range of 7.90 × 10-8 to 3.50 × 10-7 M, with a detection limit of 5.80 × 10-8 M. Moreover, this method assessed the FTO inhibitor FB23's inhibitory effect, revealing a final IC50 value of 54.73 nM. This result aligns with the IC50 value of 60 nM obtained through alternative methods and is very close to the values reported in the literature. The study provides reference value for research into obesity, diabetes, cancer, and other FTO-related diseases, as well as for the screening of potential therapeutic drugs.

MazF-rolling circle amplification combined MALDI-TOF MS for site-specific detection of N6-methyladenosine RNA

N6-methyladenosine (m6A) is one of the most abundant chemical modifications in RNA and has vital significance in cellular processes and tumor development. However, the accurate analysis of site-specific m6A modification remains a challenge. In this work, a MazF endoribonuclease activated rolling circle amplification (MazF-RCA) combined MALDI-TOF MS assay is developed for the detection of site-specific m6A-RNA. MazF endoribonuclease can specifically cleave the ACA motif, leaving methylated (m6A)CA motif intact. The intact methylated RNA can then be amplified through rolling circle amplification, and the generated reporter oligonucleotides are detected by MALDI-TOF MS. The assay exhibits good quantification ability, presenting a wide linear range (100 fM to 10 nM) with the limit-of-detection lower than 100 fM. Additionally, the assay can accurately detect methylated RNA in the presence of large amount of non-methylated RNA with a relative abundance of methylated RNA down to 0.5%. The developed assay was further applied to detect m6A-RNA spiked in MCF-7 cell RNA extracts, with the recovery rates in the range of 90.64-106.93%. The present assay provides a novel platform for the analysis of site-specific m6A-RNA at high specificity and sensitivity, which can promote the study of RNA methylation in clinical and biomedical research.

A laser-induced graphene-based electrochemical immunosensor for nucleic acid methylation detection

The detection of methylation in DNA and RNA is essential for the diagnosis and treatment of a wide range of diseases. A one-step fabricated laser-induced graphene (LIG) electrode has received increasing attention due to its good electrical conductivity, large specific surface area, ease of miniaturization, low cost and flexibility. Herein, a potential biosensor for N6-methyladenosine (m6A-RNA) and 5-methylcystosine-single strand DNA (5mC-ssDNA) detection was designed. The aim of this paper is to address the problem of detecting the m6A-RNA and 5mC-ssDNA content in cells. By stepwise modification of gold nanoparticles (AuNPs), sulfhydryl-modified nucleic acid chains, biotin-modified antibodies, and streptavidin-modified horseradish peroxidase (SA-HRP) at the LIG electrode, the peak current responses exhibited an increase proportional to the concentration of m6A-RNA and 5mC-ssDNA in the hydrogen peroxide-hydroquinone (H2O2-HQ) system. This method demonstrated a low detection limit of 2.81 pM for m6A-RNA and 9.53 pM for 5mC-ssDNA, with a linear detection range of 0.01 nM to 10 nM for both targets. The regression equation was determined as ΔI = 4.83 log c + 12.32 (R2 = 0.9980) for m6A-RNA and ΔI = 9.82 log c + 22.09 (R2 = 0.9903) for 5mC-ssDNA. Our method has good selectivity toward different detection targets of nucleic acid chains, stability for long-term storage and consecutive scanning (RSD of 9.42% and 2.08%, respectively) and reproducibility of 5 electrodes (RSD of 6.85%). This method utilizes gold-sulfur bonding to immobilize the detection target, which improves the conductivity of the LIG electrode and introduces an amplified portion of the signal by taking advantage of antigen-antibody specific binding. Thus, dual detection of m6A-RNA and 5mC-ssDNA was realized. Importantly, this approach is successfully applied for the detection of targets in spiked samples extracted from HeLa cells, suggesting its potential for clinical applications and providing a new perspective for the development of point-of care testing (POCT) techniques.

One-Base-Gap Circular Probe-Mediated Dual Amplification for Isothermal Detection of N6-Methyladenosine Modifications

N6-Methyladenosine (m6A) stands out as the predominant internal modification in mammalian RNA, exerting crucial regulatory functions in the metabolism of mRNA. Currently available methods have been limited by an inability to quantify m6A modification at precise sites. In this work, we screened a Bst 2.0 warm start DNA polymerase with the capability of discriminating m6A from adenosine (A) and developed a robust m6A RNA detection method that enables isothermal and ultrasensitive quantification of m6A RNA at single-base resolution. The detection limit of the assay could reach about 0.02 amol, and the quantitative accuracy of the assay was verified in real cell samples. Furthermore, we applied this assay to single-cell analysis and found that the coefficients of variation of the MALAT1 m6A 2611 site in glioblastoma U251 cells showed over 20% higher than in oligodendrocytes MO3.13 cells. This method provides a highly sensitive analytical tool for site-specific m6A detection and quantification, which is expected to provide a basis for precise disease diagnosis and epigenetic transcriptional regulation.

The m6A reader YTHDC1-mediated lncRNA CTBP1-AS2 m6A modification accelerates cholangiocarcinoma progression

Background

Cholangiocarcinoma (CCA) is a serious malignancy originating from the bile ducts and the second most common primary liver cancer. Long non-coding RNA (lncRNA) is a functional lncRNA that plays an important role in human cancers. However, the role and underlying mechanisms of CTBP1-AS2 in CCA remain unknown.

Purpose

In this study, we investigated the functional role and mechanism of long-stranded non-coding RNA (lncRNA) C-terminal binding protein 1 antisense RNA 2 (CTBP1-AS2) in CCA progression.

Result

In the present study, the bioinformatics analysis revealed that YTHDC1 and CTBP1-AS2 were significantly upregulated, and it was confirmed in cholangiocarcinoma tissues from CCA patients. Meanwhile, we demonstrated that knockdown of YTHDC1 or lncRNA CTBP1-AS2 inhibited CCA cell proliferation, migration and invasion, blocked the cell cycle in G2/M phase and promoted apoptosis of CCA cells. In addition, lncRNA CTBP1-AS2-mediated N6-methyladenosine (m6A) methylation levels were significantly elevated in cholangiocarcinoma tissues, whereas knockdown of YTHDC1 resulted in a significant down-regulation of m6A methylation levels by lncRNA CTBP1-AS2.

Conclusion

Our results suggest that YTHDC1 affects cholangiocarcinoma progression by modifying the lncRNA CTBP1-AS2 m6A, and CTBP1-AS2 may be a promising therapeutic target for CCA.

Washing-Free Electrochemiluminescence Biosensor for the Simultaneous Determination of N6 Methyladenosines Incorporating a Tri-Double Resolution Strategy

We propose a novel washing-free electrochemiluminescence (ECL) biosensor for the simultaneous detection of two types of N6 methyladenosines-RNAs (m6A-RNAs), which are potential cancer biomarkers, on the basis of binding-induced DNA strand displacement (BINSD). The biosensor integrated a tri-double resolution strategy that combined spatial and potential resolution, hybridization and antibody recognition, and ECL luminescence and quenching. The biosensor was fabricated by separately immobilizing two ECL reagents (gold nanoparticles/g-C3N4 nanosheets and ruthenium bipyridine derivative/gold nanoparticles/Nafion) and the capture DNA probe on the two sections of glassy carbon electrode. As a proof of concept, m6A-Let-7a-5p and m6A-miR-17-5p were chosen as model analytes, while m6A antibody-DNA3/ferrocene-DNA4/ferrocene-DNA5 was designed as an m6A-binding probe and DNA6/DNA7 was designed as a hybridization probe with DNA3 to release the quenching probes ferrocene-DNA4/ferrocene-DNA5. The recognition process led to the quenching of the ECL signals from both probes via BINSD. The proposed biosensor has the advantage of being washing-free. The ECL methods using the fabricated ECL biosensor with the designed probes exhibited a low detection limit of 0.03 pM for two m6A-RNAs and high selectivity. This work reveals that this strategy is promising for developing an ECL method for the simultaneous detection of two m6A-RNAs. The proposed strategy could be expanded to develop the analytical methods for the simultaneous detection of other RNA modifications by changing the antibody and hybridization probe sequences.

A novel photoelectrochemical strategy for sequence-spot bispecific analysis of N6-methyladenosine modification based on proximity ligation-triggered cascade amplification

N⁶-methyladenosine (m⁶A) modification as the most prevalent mammalian RNA internal modification has been considered as the invasive biomarkers in clinical diagnosis and biological mechanism researches. It is still challenged to explore m⁶A functions due to technical limitations on base- and location-resolved m⁶A modification. Herein, we firstly proposed a sequence-spot bispecific photoelectrochemical (PEC) strategy based on in situ hybridization mediated proximity ligation assay for m⁶A RNA characterization with high sensitivity and accuracy. Firstly, the target m⁶A methylated RNA could be transferred to the exposed cohesive terminus of H1 based on the special self-designed auxiliary proximity ligation assay (PLA) with sequence-spot bispecific recognition. The exposed cohesive terminus of H1 could furtherly trigger the next catalytic hairpin assembly (CHA) amplification and in situ exponential nonlinear hyperbranched hybridization chain reaction for highly sensitive monitoring of m⁶A methylated RNA. Compared with conventional technologies, the proposed sequence-spot bispecific PEC strategy for m⁶A methylation of special RNA based on proximity ligation-triggered in situ nHCR performed improved sensitivity and selectivity with a detection limit of 53 fM, providing new insights into highly sensitive monitoring m⁶A methylation of RNA in bioassay, disease diagnosis and RNA mechanism.

Signal Amplification-Based Biosensors and Application in RNA Tumor Markers

Tumor markers are important substances for assessing cancer development. In recent years, RNA tumor markers have attracted significant attention, and studies have shown that their abnormal expression of post-transcriptional regulatory genes is associated with tumor progression. Therefore, RNA tumor markers are considered as potential targets in clinical diagnosis and prognosis. Many studies show that biosensors have good application prospects in the field of medical diagnosis. The application of biosensors in RNA tumor markers is developing rapidly. These sensors have the advantages of high sensitivity, excellent selectivity, and convenience. However, the detection abundance of RNA tumor markers is low. In order to improve the detection sensitivity, researchers have developed a variety of signal amplification strategies to enhance the detection signal. In this review, after a brief introduction of the sensing principles and designs of different biosensing platforms, we will summarize the latest research progress of electrochemical, photoelectrochemical, and fluorescent biosensors based on signal amplification strategies for detecting RNA tumor markers. This review provides a high sensitivity and good selectivity sensing platform for early-stage cancer research. It provides a new idea for the development of accurate, sensitive, and convenient biological analysis in the future, which can be used for the early diagnosis and monitoring of cancer and contribute to the reduction in the mortality rate.

Construction of a Single-Molecule Biosensor for Antibody-Free Detection of Locus-Specific N6-Methyladenosine in Cancer Cells and Tissues

N⁶-Methyladenosine (m⁶A) has emerged as a key post-transcriptional regulator in mRNA metabolism, and its dysregulation is associated with multiple human diseases. Herein, we construct a single-molecule fluorescent biosensor for antibody-free detection of locus-specific m⁶A in cancer cells and tissues. A 5'-biotinylated capture probe and a 3'-hydroxylated assistant probe are designed for the recognition of specific m⁶A-mRNA. The m⁶A-sensitive endoribonuclease MazF can identify and cleave the unmethylated mRNA, and the retained intact m⁶A-mRNA can hybridize with assistant probes and capture probes to achieve sandwich hybrids. The sandwich hybrids are immobilized on magnetic beads (MBs) to initiate the terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase (TdT)-assisted polymerization, facilitating the continuous incorporation of Cy5-dATP to form long Cy5-polyA tails for the production of an on-bead amplified fluorescence signal. After magnetic separation and exonuclease digestion, numerous Cy5 fluorophores are released and subsequently measured by single-molecule detection. Especially, this biosensor is implemented simply and isothermally without the involvement of either radiolabeling or m⁶A-specific antibody. Moreover, this biosensor shows ultrahigh sensitivity with a detection limit of 2.24 × 10^-17 M, and it can discriminate a 0.01% m⁶A level from a large pool of coexisting counterparts. Furthermore, this biosensor can be used for monitoring cellular m⁶A-mRNA expression and differentiating the m⁶A level in the breast cancer patient tissues from that in the healthy person tissues, providing a new avenue for clinical diagnosis and epitranscriptomic research.

Electrochemical DNA Biosensor Based on Mercaptopropionic Acid-Capped ZnS Quantum Dots for Determination of the Gender of Arowana Fish

A new electrochemical DNA biosensor based on mercaptopropionic acid (MPA)-capped ZnS quantum dots (MPA-ZnS QDs) immobilization matrix for covalent binding with 20-base aminated oligonucleotide has been successfully developed. Prior to the modification, screen-printed carbon paste electrode (SPE) was self-assembled with multilayer gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) and cysteamine (Cys). The inclusion of MPA-ZnS QDs semiconducting material in modified electrodes has enhanced the electron transfer between the SPE transducer and DNA leading to improved bioanalytical assay of target biomolecules. Electrochemical studies performed by cyclic voltammetry (CV) and differential pulsed voltammetry (DPV) demonstrated that the MPA-ZnS QDs modified AuNPs electrode was able to produce a lower charge transfer resistance response and hence higher electrical current response. Under optimal conditions, the immobilized synthetic DNA probe exhibited high selectivity towards synthetic target DNA. Based on the DPV response of the reduction of anthraquinone monosulphonic acid (AQMS) redox probe, the MPA-ZnS QDs-based electrochemical DNA biosensor responded to target DNA concentration from 1 × 10⁻⁹ μM to 1 × 10⁻³ μM with a sensitivity 1.2884 ± 0.12 µA, linear correlation coefficient (R²) of 0.9848 and limit of detection (LOD) of 1 × 10⁻¹¹ μM target DNA. The DNA biosensor exhibited satisfactory reproducibility with an average relative standard deviation (RSD) of 7.4%. The proposed electrochemical transducer substrate has been employed to immobilize the aminated Arowana fish (Scleropages formosus) DNA probe. The DNA biosensor showed linearity to target DNA from 1 × 10⁻¹¹ to 1 × 10⁻⁶ µM (R² = 0.9785) with sensitivity 1.1251 ± 0.243 µA and LOD of 1 × 10⁻¹¹ µM. The biosensor has been successfully used to determine the gender of Arowana fish without incorporating toxic raw materials previously employed in the hazardous processing conditions of polypyrrole chemical conducting polymer, whereby the cleaning step becomes difficult with thicker films due to high levels of toxic residues from the decrease in polymerization efficacy as films grew.

RNA m6A Modification in Immunocytes and DNA Repair: The Biological Functions and Prospects in Clinical Application

As the most prevalent internal modification in mRNA, N⁶-methyladenosine (m⁶A) plays broad biological functions via fine-tuning gene expression at the post-transcription level. Such modifications are deposited by methyltransferases (i.e., m⁶A Writers), removed by demethylases (i.e., m⁶A Erasers), and recognized by m⁶A binding proteins (i.e., m⁶A Readers). The m⁶A decorations regulate the stability, splicing, translocation, and translation efficiency of mRNAs, and exert crucial effects on proliferation, differentiation, and immunologic functions of immunocytes, such as T lymphocyte, B lymphocyte, dendritic cell (DC), and macrophage. Recent studies have revealed the association of dysregulated m⁶A modification machinery with various types of diseases, including AIDS, cancer, autoimmune disease, and atherosclerosis. Given the crucial roles of m⁶A modification in activating immunocytes and promoting DNA repair in cells under physiological or pathological states, targeting dysregulated m⁶A machinery holds therapeutic potential in clinical application. Here, we summarize the biological functions of m⁶A machinery in immunocytes and the potential clinical applications via targeting m⁶A machinery.

The fluorescent biosensor for detecting N6 methyladenine FzD5 mRNA and MazF activity

N⁶ methyladenine (m⁶A) modification of the FzD5 mRNA, an important post-transcriptional regulation in eukaryotes, is closely related to the occurrence and development of breast cancer. Here, we developed an ultra-sensitive biosensor based on MazF combining with cascaded strand displacement amplification (C-SDA) and CRISPR/Cas12a to detect m⁶A FzD5 mRNA. MazF toxin protein is a vital component of the bacterial mazEF toxin-antitoxin system that is sensitive to m⁶A RNA. Take advantage of it, the biosensor achieved antibody-independent and gene-specific detection for m⁶A RNA. Moreover, compared with traditional amplification methods, the more efficient C-SDA and the CRISPR/Cas12a system with trans-cleavage activity gave the fluorescent biosensor an excellent sensitivity with the detection limit of 0.64 fM. In addition, MazF, as a new antibacterial target, was detected by the biosensor based on C-SDA and CRISPR/Cas12a with the detection limit of 1.127 × 10^-4 U mL^-1. More importantly, the biosensor has good performance in complex samples. Therefore, the biosensor is a potential tool in detecting m⁶A FzD5 mRNA and MazF activity.

Multiplexed magnetic beads-assisted amperometric bioplatforms for global detection of methylations in nucleic acids

This work reports the first electrochemical bioplatform developed for the multidetection of 5-methylcytosine (5-mC) and 5-hydroxymethylcytosine (5-hmC) in DNA, DNA N6-methyladenine (6mA) and RNA N6-methyladenosine (m6A) methylations at global level. Direct competitive immunoassays were implemented on the surface of magnetic beads (MBs) and optimized for the single amperometric determination of different targets varying in length, sequence and number of methylations on screen-printed carbon electrodes. After evaluating the sensitivity and selectivity of such determinations and the confirmation of no cross-reactivity, a multiplexed disposable platform allowing the simultaneous determination of the mentioned four methylation events in only 45 min has been prepared. The multiplexed bioplatform was successfully applied to the determination of m6A in cellular total RNA and of 5-mC, 5-hmC and 6mA in genomic DNA extracted from tissues. The developed bioplatform showed its usefulness to discriminate the aggressiveness of cancerous cells and between healthy and tumor tissues of colorectal cancer patients.

Insights on the emerging biotechnology of histidine-rich peptides

In the late 70's, the discovery of the restriction enzymes made possible the biological production of functional proteins by recombinant DNA technologies, a fact that largely empowered both biotechnological and pharmaceutical industries. Short peptides or small protein domains, with specific molecular affinities, were developed as purification tags in downstream processes to separate the target protein from the culture media or cell debris, upon breaking the producing cells. Among these tags, and by exploiting the interactivity of the imidazole ring of histidine residues, the hexahistidine peptide (H6) became a gold standard. Although initially used almost exclusively in protein production, H6 and related His-rich peptides are progressively proving a broad applicability in novel utilities including enzymatic processes, advanced drug delivery systems and diagnosis, through a so far unsuspected adaptation of their binding capabilities. In this context, the coordination of histidine residues and metals confers intriguing functionalities to His-rich sequences useable in the forward-thinking design of protein-based nano- and micro-materials and devices, through strategies that are comprehensively presented here.

End-labeling-based electrochemical strategy for detection of adenine methylation in nucleic acid by differential pulse voltammetry

A promising electrochemical strategy for assay of N6-methyladenosine (m6A)/N6-methyladenine (6mA) in RNA/DNA is proposed. The key of this strategy is the end-labeling of nucleic acid, which makes it possible to detect methylation level in unknown sequence. Firstly, the end of m6A-RNA or 6mA-DNA was labeled with sulfhydryl group through T4 polynucleotide kinase (T4 PNK) and then directly assembled on a gold nanoparticle-modified glassy carbon electrode (AuNPs/GCE). Secondly, methylation sites in RNA/DNA were specifically recognized by anti-m6A-antibody, and then, horseradish peroxidase-labeled goat anti-rabbit IgG (HRP-IgG) was further conjugated on the antibody. Thirdly, HRP-IgG catalyzed the hydroquinone oxidation reaction to generate amplified current signal which correlates with the amount of m6A/6mA in nucleic acid. This method showed a wide linear range from 0.0001 to 10 nM for m6A-RNA, 0.001 to 100 nM for 6mA-dsDNA, and 0.0001 to 10 nM for 6mA-ssDNA. The method was successfully applied to detection of m6A/6mA in RNA/DNA from HeLa cells and E. coli cells and validation of the decrease of m6A-RNA in HeLa cells after treatment with FTO protein.

RNA N 6-Methyladenosine in Cancer Metastasis: Roles, Mechanisms, and Applications

Cancer metastasis is a symptom of adverse prognosis, a prime origin of therapy failure, and a lethal challenge for cancer patients. N⁶-methyladenosine (m⁶A), the most prevailing modification in messenger RNAs (mRNAs) and non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) of higher eukaryotes, has attracted increasing attention. Growing studies have verified the pivotal roles of m⁶A methylation in controlling mRNAs and ncRNAs in diverse physiological processes. Remarkably, recent findings have showed that aberrant methylation of m⁶A-related RNAs could influence cancer metastasis. In this review, we illuminate how m⁶A modifiers act on mRNAs and ncRNAs and modulate metastasis in several cancers, and put forward the clinical application prospects of m⁶A methylation.

Enzyme-induced Cu2+/Cu+ conversion as the electrochemical signal for sensitive detection of ethyl carbamate

Traditional enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (t-ELISA) method suffers from its relatively low sensitivity or accuracy in the detection of trace level of analyte in complicated samples. In this work, to extend the application of ELISA in practical samples, a newly electrochemical immunoassay (ECIA) was developed based on an enzyme-induced Cu²⁺/Cu⁺ conversion for the determination of ethyl carbamate (EC). Wherein, three rounds of signal transformation-the catalysis of ALP enzyme, the conversion of Cu²⁺/Cu⁺ and signal output of square wave voltammetry (SWV), can be realized to obtain higher sensitivity as compared to t-ELISA. The ECIA method combines the advantages of electrochemistry and ELISA, behaving superior detection performance, such as good selectivity, high sensitivity, and low background signal. For the wine samples, the method showed a linear detection range from 2.5 nM to 2.5 × 10⁴ nM with a limit of detection of 2.28 nM (S/N = 3), which reveals that the ECIA sensor is a promising platform for the detection of trace level of EC in practical samples.

Magnetic microbeads-based amperometric immunoplatform for the rapid and sensitive detection of N6-methyladenosine to assist in metastatic cancer cells discrimination

This work describes the preparation of an immunoplatform for the sensitive and selective determination of N6-methyladenosine (m6A). The simple and fast protocol involves for the first time the use of micromagnetic immunoconjugates to establish a direct competitive assay between the m6A target and a biotinylated RNA oligomer bearing a single m6A enzymatically labelled with a commercial conjugate of streptavidin-peroxidase (Strep-HRP) as tracer. The cathodic current change measured in the presence of H₂O₂/hydroquinone (HQ) at screen-printed carbon electrodes (SPCEs) upon surface capturing the magnetic bioconjugates is inversely proportional to the m6A target concentration. After evaluating the effect of key variables, the analytical characteristics were established for the determination of three different targets: the N6-methyladenosine-5'-triphosphate (m6ATP) ribonucleotide, a short synthetic RNA oligomer bearing a single m6A and the positive control provided in a commercial colorimetric kit for m6A-RNA quantification. The obtained results show that this immunoplatform is competitive with other methods reported to date, achieving an improved sensitivity (limit of detection of 0.9 pM for the short synthetic oligomer) using a much simpler and faster protocol (~1 h) and disposable electrodes for the transduction. Furthermore, the applicability for discriminating the metastatic potential of cancer cells by directly analyzing a small amount of raw total RNA without enriching or fragmenting was also preliminary assessed.

Photoelectrochemical immunosensor for methylated RNA detection based on WS2 and poly(U) polymerase-triggered signal amplification

A novel photoelectrochemical immunosensor has been constructed for the determination of methylated RNA. MoS₂ nanosheets with large specific area were employed as photoactive material, gold nanoparticles were used as signal amplification unit and immobilization matrix of 4-mercaptophenylboronic acid, anti-m⁶A antibody was adopted as methylated RNA recognition reagent, and poly(U) polymerase-mediated RNA chain extension and Ru(NH₃)₆³⁺ were used as assisted signal amplification unit. With the sensitization effect of Ru(NH₃)₆³⁺, the photoactivity of WS₂ nanosheets was improved greatly, which also improved the sensitivity. Using visible-light excitation and ascorbic acid as electron donor, the sensitive determination of methylated RNA was achieved by monitoring the photocurrent change with different concentrations of methylated RNA. This photoelectrochemical immunosensor has a wide linear relationship with methylated RNA concentration from 0.05 to 35 nM under optimal experimental conditions. The low detection limit of 14.5 pM was realized based on 3σ criterion. In addition to the good selectivity, this sensor also presents high reproducibility with a relative standard deviation of 1.4% for the photocurrent of seven electrodes. The applicability of the developed method was also investigated by detecting the level of methylated RNA in corn seedling leaves with and without sulfadiazine treatment. Graphical abstract A novel photoelectrochemical immunosensor was developed for methylated RNA detection using the photoactive material of MoS2 and poly(U) polymerase-mediated RNA chain extension.

Electrochemical biosensing to move forward in cancer epigenetics and metastasis: A review

Early detection and effective treatment are crucial to reduce the physical, emotional, and financial pressure exerted by growing cancer burden on individuals, families, communities, and health systems. Currently, it is clear that the accurate analysis of emerging cancer epigenetic and metastatic-related biomarkers at different molecular levels is envisaged as an exceptional solution for early and reliable diagnosis and the improvement of therapy efficiency through personalized treatments. Within this field, electrochemical biosensing has demonstrated to be competitive over other emerging and currently used methodologies for the determination of these biomarkers accomplishing the premises of user-friendly, multiplexing ability, simplicity, reduced costs and decentralized analysis, demanded by clinical oncology, thus priming electrochemical biosensors to spark a diagnostic revolution for cancer prediction and eradication. This review article critically discusses the main characteristics, opportunities and versatility exhibited by electrochemical biosensing, through highlighting representative examples published during the last two years, for the reliable determination of these emerging biomarkers, with great diagnostic, predictive and prognostic potential. Special attention is paid on electrochemical affinity biosensors developed for the single or multiplexed determination of methylation events, non-coding RNAs, ctDNA features and metastasis-related protein biomarkers both in liquid and solid biopsies of cancer patients. The main challenges to which further work must be addressed and the impact of these advances should have in the clinical acceptance of these emerging biomarkers are also discussed which decisively will contribute to understand the molecular basis involved in the epigenetics and metastasis of cancer and to apply more efficient personalized therapies.