Recommendations for outpatient parenteral antimicrobial therapy in Brazil

Current practices and challenges of outpatient parenteral antimicrobial therapy: a narrative review

Extended hospitalization for infection management increases inpatient care costs and the risk of healthcare-associated adverse events, including infections. The growing global demand for healthcare, the diminishing availability of hospital beds and an increasing patient preference for care within their own home have been the primary drivers of the expansion of hospital-in-the-home programmes. Such programmes include the use of IV antimicrobials in outpatient settings, known as outpatient parenteral antimicrobial therapy (OPAT). However, OPAT practices vary globally. This review article aims to describe the current OPAT practices and challenges worldwide. OPAT practice begins with patient evaluation and selection using eligibility criteria, which requires collaboration between the interdisciplinary OPAT team, patients and caregivers. Depending on care requirements, eligible patients may be enrolled to various models of care, receiving medication by healthcare professionals at outpatient infusion centres, hospital clinics, home visits or through self-administration. OPAT can be used for the management of many infections where an effective oral treatment option is lacking. Various classes of parenteral antimicrobials, including β-lactams, aminoglycosides, glycopeptides, fluoroquinolones and antifungals such as echinocandins, are used globally in OPAT practice. Despite its benefits, OPAT has numerous challenges, including complications from medication administration devices, antimicrobial side effects, monitoring requirements, antimicrobial instability, patient non-adherence, patient OPAT rejection, and challenges related to OPAT team structure and administration, all of which impact its outcome. A negative outcome could include unplanned hospital readmission. Future research should focus on mitigating these challenges to enable optimization of the OPAT service and thereby maximize the documented benefits for the healthcare system, patients and healthcare providers.

Outpatient parenteral antimicrobial therapy (OPAT) across the world: a comparative analysis-what lessons can we learn?

This paper presents a comparative analysis of Outpatient Parenteral Antimicrobial Therapy (OPAT) structures and delivery options across different countries. OPAT, a cost-effective alternative to inpatient care for patients requiring IV antimicrobial therapy, has demonstrated multiple benefits such as patient satisfaction, economic cost savings, and reduced hospital-acquired infections. Despite these advantages, there is considerable international variation in OPAT use and implementation. By examining the OPAT structures of multiple countries, we aim to identify areas of variation and explore opportunities for expansion and improvement of OPAT services.

Outpatient parenteral antimicrobial therapy in Germany: a prospective cohort study protocol

INTRODUCTION

Outpatient parenteral antimicrobial therapy (OPAT) means intravenous administration of antibiotics outside the hospital. The antibiotics are administered at the patient's home. The advantages are the shortening of the inpatient stay, which means that patients can remain in their familiar environment, the reduction of nosocomial infections as well as the reduction of hospital and therapy costs. Nevertheless, OPAT is rarely performed in Germany, despite its international application. Therefore, systematic data on OPAT are not available in Germany. The project objective is to investigate the medical care using OPAT under medical, epidemiological and economic aspects within the framework of the Cologne Network of Infectious Diseases.

METHODS AND ANALYSIS

Observational study with mixed-methods approach, qualitative analysis to identify physician-side factors to assess the attitude of general practitioners in Cologne with regard to possible implementation barriers of an OPAT. Longitudinal analysis of an OPAT patient cohort with respect to clinical and patient-relevant outcomes using descriptive and conclusive statistics.

ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION

The study has been approved by the Institutional Review Board of the University of Cologne, Germany (19-1284-1). Written informed consent was obtained from all participants. The results will be submitted for publication in a peer-reviewed journal and presented at one or more scientific conferences.

TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER

NCT04002453.

Successful Integration of Clinical Pharmacists in an OPAT Program: A Real-Life Multidisciplinary Circuit

Outpatient parenteral antimicrobial therapy (OPAT) programs encompass a range of healthcare processes aiming to treat infections at home, with the preferential use of the intravenous route. Although several barriers arise during the implementation of OPAT circuits, recent cumulative data have supported the effectiveness of these programs, demonstrating their application in a safe and cost-effective manner. Given that OPAT is evolving towards treating patients with higher complexity, a multidisciplinary team including physicians, pharmacists, and nursing staff should lead the program. The professionals involved require previous experience in infectious diseases treatment as well as in outpatient healthcare and self-administration. As we describe here, clinical pharmacists exert a key role in OPAT multidisciplinary teams. Their intervention is essential to optimize antimicrobial prescriptions through their participation in stewardship programs as well as to closely follow patients from a pharmacotherapeutic perspective. Moreover, pharmacists provide specialized counseling on antimicrobial treatment technical compounding. In fact, OPAT elaboration in sterile environments and pharmacy department clean rooms increases OPAT stability and safety, enhancing the quality of the program. In summary, building multidisciplinary teams with the involvement of clinical pharmacists improves the management of home-treated infections, promoting a safe self-administration and increasing OPAT patients' quality of life.

Antimicrobial stewardship in the outpatient parenteral antimicrobial therapy (OPAT) setting: the impact of prescription assessment by an infectious diseases specialist

Objective

In recent years, the use of outpatient parenteral antimicrobial therapy (OPAT) has increased, resulting in the need to ensure its rational and adequate utilization. This article describes the implementation of an antimicrobial stewardship program in the OPAT setting by a Health Maintenance Organization (HMO) and its results.

Method

An infectious disease (ID) physician made routine assessments of all home care parenteral antimicrobial requests from February to December 2019. Information on diagnosis, renal function, weight, previous antimicrobials, and microbiology were gathered during remote evaluations. Prescription changes recommended by the ID specialist were not mandatory, but implemented by the primary provider as accepted. Antibiotic consumption data was analyzed from January 2018 to December 2019. An active screening was conducted for treatment failures: two or more treatment course requirements, or death within 15 days of the evaluation were reexamined.

Results

A total of 506 antimicrobial requests were assessed. The most frequent diagnoses were urinary tract infection, pneumonia, and orthopedic surgical site infection. Six percent of evaluations were not completed due to insufficient information and 12% were requests by the primary physician for initial antimicrobial guidance. Of the 416 completed prescriptions evaluations, 58% had suggested changes, including different antimicrobials (40%), treatment duration (25%), and route of administration (23%). There was an increase in use of teicoplanin and meropenem, and a decrease in ceftriaxone, ertapenem, cefepime, amikacin and daptomycin use. The HMO’s overall parenteral antimicrobial outpatient consumption, which had shown an upward trend over the previous year, decreased after program initiation. No major adverse results were detected in patients’ clinical outcomes; two treatment failures were detected and promptly corrected; no deaths attributed to antibiotic changes were detected.

Conclusion

Outpatient antimicrobial stewardship, through remote assessment by an ID specialist, was effective and safe in the OPAT setting.

Cost minimization analysis of outpatient parenteral/oral antibiotic therapy at a trauma hospital: Public health system

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the impact of outpatient parenteral antimicrobial therapy (OPAT) on a public hospital in a middle-income country.

DESIGN

A retrospective, observational study analyzing the economic data retrieved on the dehospitalization of patients on antibiotic therapy.

SETTING

Public university trauma hospital.

PATIENTS

Data were collected from June 2017 to May 2020. Antibiotic cost, hospital length of stay, and risk of multidrug-resistant (MDR) infection or colonization were reviewed, along with the break-even point at which a balance occurs between OPAT antimicrobial costs and all in-hospital costs. A cumulative risk curve was constructed showing the incidence of MDR during the review period.

RESULTS

In total, 225 patients were studied. The implementation of OPAT resulted in a reduction of $156,681 (49.6%), which is equivalent to an average of $696 per patient, as well as a shortened length of stay, from 33.5 to 15.7 days. OPAT reduces the risk of acquiring infection by MDR bacteria by having the final treatments administered outside of the hospital environment. The breakeven curves, comparing the duration of the OPAT to daily medication costs, allowed for the prediction of the time and dollar costs of antibiotic therapy.

CONCLUSIONS

OPAT presented a significant cost savings, shortened length of stay, and reduced risk of contamination of patients by MDR.

Factors associated with successful completion of outpatient parenteral antibiotic therapy in an area with a high prevalence of multidrug-resistant bacteria: 30-day hospital admission and mortality rates

Objectives

To identify factors associated with hospital admission and mortality within the first 30 days after enrolment in an outpatient parenteral antimicrobial therapy (OPAT) program, also analysing adequacy of the treatment regimen and clinical outcomes.

Patients and methods

This was a retrospective cohort study conducted between October 2016 and June 2017 in the state of São Paulo, Brazil. Variables related to hospital admission and mortality were subjected to bivariate analysis, and those with a P<0.05 were subjected to multivariate analysis as risk factors.

Results

We evaluated 276 patients, of whom 80.5% were ≥60 years of age and 69.9% had more than one comorbidity. Of the patients evaluated, 41.3% had pneumonia and 35.1% had a urinary tract infection. The most common etiological agent, isolated in 18 (31.6%) cases, was Klebsiella pneumoniae, and 13 (72,2%) strains were carbapenem resistant. The OPAT was in accordance with the culture results in 76.6% of the cases and with the institutional protocols in 76.4%. The majority (64.5%) of the patients were not admitted, and a cure or clinical improvement was achieved in 78.6%. Multivariate analysis showed that, within the first 30 days after enrolment, the absence of a physician office visit was a predictor of hospital admission (P<0.001) and mortality (P = 0.006).

Conclusions

This study demonstrated the viability of OPAT in elderly patients with pulmonary or urinary tract infections in an area with a high prevalence of multidrug-resistant bacteria and that a post-discharge physician office visit is protective against hospital admission and mortality.

Enterococcus faecalis Endocarditis and Outpatient Treatment: A Systematic Review of Current Alternatives

The selection of the best alternative for Enterococcus faecalis infective endocarditis (IE) continuation treatment in the outpatient setting is still challenging. Three databases were searched, reporting antibiotic therapies against E. faecalis IE in or suitable for the outpatient setting. Articles the results of which were identified by species and treatment regimen were included. The quality of the studies was assessed accordingly with the study design. Data were extracted and synthesized narratively. In total, 18 studies were included. The treatment regimens reported were classified regarding the main antibiotic used as regimen, based on Aminoglycosides, dual β-lactam, teicoplanin, daptomycin or dalbavancin or oral therapy. The regimens based on aminoglycosides and dual β-lactam combinations are the treatment alternatives which gather more evidence regarding their efficacy. Dual β-lactam is the preferred option for high level aminoglycoside resistance strains, and for to its reduced nephrotoxicity, while its adaptation to the outpatient setting has been poorly documented. Less evidence supports the remaining alternatives, but many of them have been successfully adapted to outpatient care. Teicoplanin and dalbavancin as well as oral therapy seem promising. Our work provides an extensive examination of the potential alternatives to E. faecalis IE useful for outpatient care. However, the insufficient evidence hampers the attempt to give a general recommendation.

Review of the first comprehensive outpatient parenteral antimicrobial therapy program in a tertiary care hospital in Japan

OBJECTIVES

The infectious diseases team at Kameda Medical Center, Japan, implemented a new outpatient parenteral antimicrobial therapy (OPAT) program in July 2012 and expanded the program with the support of home care services. This study reviews the OPAT program after 5.5 years of operation.

METHODS

We prospectively collected data about the age, sex, diagnoses, causative organisms, types of OPAT, modes of administration, selected antibiotics, treatment durations, bed days saved, outcomes, readmissions, and estimated cost reductions of all patients who were treated in the OPAT program from July 2012 to December 2017.

RESULTS

Of the 66 patients treated under the OPAT program, 45 (68.2%) were treated using clinic OPAT, and 21 (31.8%) were treated using homecare OPAT. The most commonly targeted organism was methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus. Continuous infusion with elastomeric pumps was employed in 55 patients (83.3%). Cefazolin was the most frequently used antibiotic (39.4%), followed by penicillin G (24.2%). The median OPAT duration was 13 days (range, 3-51), and the total bed days saved was 923. The estimated medical cost reduction was approximately 87,000 US dollars.

CONCLUSIONS

Our experience shows that OPAT is a safe and feasible practice not only for efficient bed utilization and medical cost savings but also for better antimicrobial stewardship.

Updated good practice recommendations for outpatient parenteral antimicrobial therapy (OPAT) in adults and children in the UK

UK good practice recommendations for outpatient parenteral antimicrobial therapy (OPAT) were published in 2012 and 2015 for adult and paediatric patients, respectively. Here we update the initial good practice recommendations in a combined document based on a further review of the OPAT literature and an extensive consultation process. As with the previous good practice recommendations, these updated recommendations are intended to provide pragmatic guidance for new and established OPAT services across a range of settings and to act as a set of quality indicators for service evaluation and quality improvement.

Outpatient ertapenem therapy in an ESBL-high-prevalence area: an efficacy, safety, and cost study

Introduction

Outpatient parenteral antimicrobial therapy is a safe, effective, and convenient way of administering antimicrobials for a wide variety of infections. So far there are no reports on the efficacy of outpatient antimicrobial therapy in Mexico. Our objective was to determine the outcomes, safety, and cost of outpatient ertapenem therapy (OET) in our hospital.

Patients and methods

A case series of 99 patients that received intravenous OET was conducted. The primary outcomes were clinical cure, relapse, and recurrence of infection.

Results

Of the 99 patients who received OET the most common diagnosis was urinary tract infection in 56%. Extended-spectrum-β-lactamase-producing Enterobacteriaceae caused 67% of infections in our population. Ninety-seven percent of the patients were cured at the completion of OET. One patient presented relapse 12 days after the end of OET; two patients presented recurrence, one with skin and soft tissue infection and one with pyelonephritis at days 35 and 34, respectively, after the end of OET. Three patients were readmitted after OET, one with an episode of phlebitis, one with recurrence, and one with relapse. A case of non-Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea was observed. The intravascular line complications observed during OET were phlebitis in two patients.

Conclusion

In our hospital, the OET was found to be effective, safe, and cost-saving when compared to inpatient care.

Cost-utility analysis of outpatient parenteral antimicrobial therapy (OPAT) in the Brazilian national health system

BACKGROUND

Outpatient parenteral antimicrobial therapy (OPAT) has been used for decades in different countries to reduce hospitalization rates, with favorable clinical and economic outcomes. This study assesses the cost-utility of OPAT compared to inpatient parenteral antimicrobial therapy (IPAT) from the perspective of a public university hospital and the Brazilian National Health System (Unified Health System -SUS).

METHODS

Prospective study with adult patients undergoing OPAT at an infusion center, compared to IPAT. Clinical outcomes and quality-adjusted life year (QALY) were assessed, as well as a micro-costing. Cost-utility analysis from the hospital and SUS perspectives were conducted by means of a decision tree, within a 30-day horizon time.

RESULTS

Forty cases of OPAT (1112 days) were included and monitored, with a favorable outcome in 97.50%. OPAT compared to IPAT generated overall savings of 31.86% from the hospital perspective and 26.53% from the SUS perspective. The intervention reduced costs, with an incremental cost-utility ratio of -44,395.68/QALY for the hospital and -48,466.70/QALY for the SUS, with better cost-utility for treatment times greater than 14 days. Sensitivity analysis confirmed the stability of the model.

CONCLUSION

Our economic assessment demonstrated that, in the Brazilian context, OPAT is a cost-saving strategy both for hospitals and for the SUS.