Production of mycelial biomass by the Amazonian edible mushroom Pleurotus albidus

Adding-value to Ganoderma lingzhi by producing enzymes and antioxidant compounds under submerged fermentation using different culture media

Ganoderma lingzhi is widely reported for its medicinal properties, presenting several bioactive substances with potential pharmaceutical and industrial application. This study aimed to evaluate the production of mycelial biomass, extracellular enzymes and antioxidant compounds by G. lingzhi under submerged fermentation. G. lingzhi was cultured in Polysaccharide (POL) and Melin-Norkrans (MNM) media for 7 days. The cellulases, xylanases, pectinases, laccases, and proteases activities were quantified in the culture broth, while the antioxidant potential was evaluated for the mycelial biomass. G. lingzhi showed higher biomass production in MNM. However, it exhibited similar microstructural characteristics in both culture media. In the POL there was greater activity of CMCase (0.229 U/mL), xylanase (0.780 U/mL), pectinase (0.447 U/mL) and proteases (16.13 U/mL). FPase did not differ (0.01 U/mL), and laccase was detected only in MNM (0.122 U/mL). The biomass water extract from MNM showed high levels of phenolic compounds (951.97 mg AGE/100 g). DPPH• inhibition (90.55%) and reducing power (0.456) were higher in MNM medium, while ABTS•+ inhibition (99.95%) and chelating ability (54.86%) were higher in POL. Thus, the MNM medium was more favorable to the production of mycelial biomass and phenolic compounds, while the POL medium favored the synthesis and excretion of hydrolytic enzymes.

The ability of selected fungal strains to produce carboxylesterase enzymes for biodegradation and use of bifenthrin insecticide as carbon source: in vitro and in silico approaches

Bifenthrin (BF) is a broad-spectrum type I pyrethroid insecticide that acts on insects by impairing the nervous system and inhibiting ATPase activity, and it has toxic effects on non-target organisms and high persistence in the environment. This study aimed to determine the potential of six different fungi, including Pseudozyma hubeiensis PA, Trichoderma reesei PF, Trichoderma koningiopsis PD, Purpureocillium lilacinum ACE3, Talaromyces pinophilus ACE4, and Aspergillus niger AJ-F3, to degrade BF. Three different concentrations of BF, including 0.1%, 0.2%, and 0.3% w/v, were used in the sensitivity testing that revealed a significant (p ≤ 0.01) impact of BF on fungal growth. Enzymatic assays demonstrated that both intracellular and extracellular carboxylesterases hydrolyzed BF with the enzymatic activity of up to 175 ± 3 U (μmol/min) and 45 ± 1 U, respectively. All tested fungi were capable of utilizing BF as a sole carbon source producing 0.06 ± 0.01 to 0.45 ± 0.01 mg dry biomass per mg BF. Moreover, the presence of PytH was determined in the fungi using bioinformatics tools and was found in A. niger, T. pinophilus, T. reesei, and P. lilacinum. 3D structures of the PytH homologs were predicted using AlphaFold2, and their intermolecular interactions with pyrethroids were determined using MOE. All the homologs interacted with different pyrethroids with a binding energy of lesser than - 10 kcal/mol. Based on the study, it was concluded that the investigated fungi have a greater potential for the biodegradation of BF.

Enhancing Eritadenine Production in Submerged Cultures of Shiitake (Lentinula edodes Berk. Pegler) Using Blue LED Light and Activated Charcoal. Revealing Eritadenine's Novel In Vitro Bioherbicidal Activity Against Chrysanthemum morifolium

Eritadenine from shiitake mushroom is a secondary metabolite with hypocholesterolemic, hypotensive and antiparasitic properties, thus promising for pharmaceutical and agricultural applications. Eritadenine is obtained from submerged mycelial cultures of shiitake, but the actual yields remain unsatisfactory to explore potential applications or industrial-scale production. In this study, green and blue LED lights were tested to increase yields of eritadenine in submerged cultures of shiitake. Notably, blue LEDs increased yields by 13-14 times, reaching 165.7 mg/L, compared to darkness (11.2 mg/L) and green light (12.1 mg/L) (p < 0.05, Tukey test). Nitrogen sources yeast extract (YE) and peptone (at 2 g/L) increased eritadenine production. YE promoted 22.6 mg/L, while peptone 18.3 mg/L. The recovery of eritadenine was evaluated using amberlite and activated charcoal (AC) adsorption isotherms. AC demonstrated the highest adsorption rate, with 75 mg of eritadenine per gram of AC, according to the Freundlich isotherm. The desorption rate reached 93.95% at pH 10. The extract obtained from submerged cultures had eritadenine content of 63.31%, corresponding to 87.86% of recovery, according to HPLC analysis. Furthermore, the novel bioherbicidal potential of eritadenine was tested on in vitro Chrysanthemum morifolium plants. The cultures extract containing eritadenine had a detrimental impact on plant development, generating mortality of 100% at 3%, 0.5%, and 0.25%. Moreover, pure eritadenine exhibited a phytotoxic effect similar than glyphosate on leaves, stems and roots. These findings highlight the significant bioherbicidal properties of eritadenine. Further studies are needed to understand the biosynthetic pathway of eritadenine and its bioherbicidal properties on weeds and illicit crops.

Innovative Approaches to Fungal Food Production: Mycelial Pellet Morphology Insights

Mycelia products enhance edible mushrooms in alignment with future sustainability trends. To meet forthcoming market demands, the morphology of mycelial pellets was optimized for direct consumption. Among ten commercial edible mushrooms in Taiwan, Pleurotus sp. was selected for its rapid growth and was identified via an internal transcribed spacer sequence. A combination of Plackett-Burman design and Taguchi's L9(34) orthogonal table revealed the optimal formula as potato dextrose broth (2.4%), olive oil (2%), calcium carbonate (0.5%), yeast extract (0.75%), and soy flour (0.5%). This led to a biomass increase to 19.9 ± 1.1 g/L, resulting in a 2.17-fold yield increase. To refine morphology, image processing by ImageJ quantified spherical characteristics. The addition of 0.2 to 1.0% Tween 80 enhanced pellet compaction by over 50%. Dilution of the medium improved uniformity (0.85) and conversion rate (42%), yielding mycelial pellets with 2.10 ± 0.52 mm diameters and a yield of 15.1 ± 0.6 g/L. These findings provide an alternative evaluation and application of edible mycelial pellets as future food.

Production of mycelial biomass, proteases and protease inhibitors by Ganoderma lucidum under different submerged fermentation conditions

Ganoderma lucidum is a medicinal mushroom widely recognized as a source of biomolecules with pharmacological properties, however, little is known about the factors that influence the synthesis of bioactive proteins by this fungus when cultivated under submerged fermentation. The objective of this work was to evaluate the production of mycelial biomass and intracellular proteases and protease inhibitors by G. lucidum cultivated under different submerged fermentation conditions. The cultivation was carried out in a medium composed of glucose (10 or 20 g.L-1), soy peptone (2.5 or 5 g.L-1) and yeast extract (5 g.L-1), with incubation under agitation (120 rpm) and non-agitation, totaling 8 experimental conditions. Biomass production was determined from the dry weight, while glucose consumption was estimated by quantification of reducing sugars. The proteins were extracted in NaCl (0.15 M), and the protein extracts were submitted to protein quantification by the Bradford method, total proteolytic activity using azocasein, caseinolytic and fibrinolytic activity in Petri dishes, activity of serine (trypsin and chymotrypsin) and cysteine (papain) protease inhibitors. Cultivation in agitated condition showed higher biomass production with a maximum value of 7 g.L-1, in addition to higher activities of trypsin, chymotrypsin and papain inhibitors, with 154 IU.mg-1, 153 IU.mg-1 e 343 IU.mg-1 of protein, respectively. The non-agitated condition showed a greater potential for obtaining proteins, total proteases, caseinolytic and fibrinolytic enzymes, with maximum values of 433 mg.g-1 of extract, 71 U.mL-1 of extract, 63.62 mm2 and 50.27 mm2, respectively. Thus, a medium composed of soy peptone, yest extract and glucose in a 1:2:4 proportion is recommended, under agitation to produce protease inhibitors, and the non-agitated condition when the target is, mainly caseinolytic and fibrinolytic enzymes.

Mycochemical screening reveals exopolysaccharide secretion, antioxidant and larvicidal activities of three oyster mushrooms

BACKGROUND

Higher fungi such as oyster mushrooms have been well reported to have vast therapeutic and nutritive importance due to their bioactive constituents. Today, many interesting facts are also emerging regarding their importance in pest control. In this study, Pleurotus floridanus, P. ostreatus and P. sajor-caju were studied for exopolysacharide (EPS) and antioxidant production under different carbon sources, and assayed for larvicidal properties.

RESULTS

We observed a positive response of these mushrooms to carbon sources. The highest EPS was produced by P. sajor-caju under sucrose carbon source, whereas P. ostreatus and P. floridanus preferred glucose. The antioxidant activity of their EPS was confirmed using radical scavenging of 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl and potassium ferricyanide reduction methods. We also established the inhibition of lipid peroxidation by the EPS produced by these mushrooms, although this was concentration dependent, while P. floridanus EPS had the highest antioxidant properties. An EPS concentration of 100 mg L^-1 from all the mushrooms was sufficient for inhibition of lipid peroxidation; this also showed a significant difference from the scavenging effect of butylated hydroxytoluene. All the mushroom extracts in this study had positive inhibitory effects on the late third and early fourth stages of Anopheles gambiae. However, they were significantly different from each other as P. floridanus recorded a lethal concentration (LC₅₀ ) of 0.0.563, P. ostreatus had an LC₅₀ of 0.352, while P. sajor-caju had an LC₅₀ of 0.715.

CONCLUSION

This study affirms the influence of carbon source on EPS production by selected oyster mushrooms, and reveals their antioxidant properties and potential applications in pest control. © 2021 Society of Chemical Industry.

Production, partial purification and characterization of ligninolytic enzymes from selected basidiomycetes mushroom fungi

In recent years, many research on the quantity of lignocellulosic waste have been developed. The production, partial purification, and characterisation of ligninolytic enzymes from various fungi are described in this work. On the 21st day of incubation in Potato Dextrose (PD) broth, Hypsizygus ulmarius developed the most laccase (14.83 × 10⁻⁶ IU/ml) and manganese peroxidase (24.11 × 10⁻⁶ IU/ml), while Pleurotus florida produced the most lignin peroxidase (19.56 × ⁻⁶ IU/ml). Laccase (Lac), lignin peroxidase (LiP), and manganese peroxidase (MnP), all generated by selected basidiomycetes mushroom fungi, were largely isolated using ammonium sulphate precipitation followed by dialysis. Laccase, lignin peroxidase, and manganese peroxidase purification findings indicated 1.83, 2.13, and 1.77 fold purity enhancements, respectively. Specific activity of purified laccase enzyme preparations ranged from 305.80 to 376.85 IU/mg, purified lignin peroxidase from 258.51 to 336.95 IU/mg, and purified manganese peroxidase from 253.45 to 529.34 IU/mg. H. ulmarius laccase (376.85 IU/mg) with 1.83 fold purification had the highest specific activity of all the ligninolytic enzymes studied, followed by 2.13 fold purification in lignin peroxidase (350.57 IU/mg) and manganese peroxidase (529.34 IU/mg) with 1.77-fold purification. Three notable bands with molecular weights ranging from 43 to 68 kDa and a single prominent band with a molecular weight of 97.4 kDa were identified on a Native PAGE gel from mycelial proteins of selected mushroom fungus. The SDS PAGE profiles of the mycelial proteins from the selected mushroom fungus were similar to the native PAGE. All three partially purified ligninolytic isozymes display three bands in native gel electrophoresis, with only one prominent band in enzyme activity staining. The 43 kDa, 55 kDa, and 68 kDa protein bands correspond to laccase, lignin peroxidase, and manganese peroxidase, respectively.

Environmental implications of the organic matter structure for white-rot fungus Pleurotus eryngii growth in a tropical climate

White-rot fungi (Pleurotus eryngii) are decomposers of lignocellulosic substrates. The relationship between the structure of humified organic matter and P. eryngii growth, is poorly understood. This study aimed to evaluate the relationship between the growth and development of white-rot fungi (P. eryngii) in two structurally different sources of humified organic matter. Fungus growth and development (mycelium diameter, fresh and dry mycelium mass, mycelium density, and biological yield) were evaluated in experiments with the application of humic substances (HS) extracted from vermicompost (VC) and peat. Both HS were characterized by CP/MAS 13C NMR spectroscopy associated with chemometrics analysis. The HS present different structural characteristics, with those extracted from VC having a predominance of functionalized C-aliphatics (carbohydrates), low hydrophobicity, and a 90% proportion of cellulose/hemicellulose carbon in the composition. HS extracted from peat have a predominance of C-aromatics (lignin fragments), higher hydrophobicity, and a proportion of lignin carbon of up to 80%. The results showed that P. eryngii growth is dependent on the C-cellulosic and C-lignin balance. HS extracted from lignin-rich peat regulates the fungus growth at initial times and sometimes inhibits the biological performance. The highly cellulosic HS from VC regulate the fungus growth at later times and its biological performance.

Application of Lactic Acid Bacteria in Fermentation Processes to Obtain Tannases Using Agro-Industrial Wastes

Bacteria have been used in the food industry to produce flavors, dyes, thickeners, and to increase food value, because bacterial fermentations favor the obtention of different metabolites such as tannins and different nutritional compounds in food. Lactiplantibacillus plantarum was one the first species to be studied for industrial purposes, and its efficacy to obtaining tannins using fermentation processes. Bacterial fermentation helps to obtain a product with an added value of better quality and without the need to use strong solvents that can reduce their quality and safety. To release tannins, it is necessary to subject the substrate to different conditions to activate the enzyme tannin acyl hydrolase (tannase). The tannase-released compounds can have beneficial effects on health such as antioxidant, anticancer and cardioprotective properties, among others. Therefore, this review analyzes tannase release and other metabolites by fermentation processes.

Bioactivity assessment of exopolysaccharides produced by Pleurotus pulmonarius in submerged culture with different agro-waste residues

Pleurotus spp. are white-rot fungi that utilize different agro-wastes to produce useful biologically active compounds. In this study, exopolysaccharides (EPS) were produced by Pleurotus pulmonarius in submerged culture supplemented with different agro-wastes. Functional groups in EPS were revealed using Fourier Transform-Infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy. Antimicrobial activity of EPS was tested against microorganisms using agar well diffusion. Scavenging potentials of EPS was tested against 1, 1- diphenyl-2-picryhydrazyl (DPPH), hydroxyl (OH), iron (Fe2+) and nitric oxide (NO) radicals. In vitro prebiotic activity of EPS was carried out. The highest yield (5.60 g/L) of EPS was produced by P. pulmonarius in submerged culture supplemented with groundnut shell (20.0 g/L). The functional groups in EPS were hydroxyl (-OH), methyl (-CH3), ketone (-RCOH) and carbonyl group (-C=O). EPS displayed zones of inhibition (5.00-14.00 mm) against tested microorganisms. Scavenging activity of EPS ranged from 65.70-81.80% against DPPH. EPS supported the growth of Lactobacillus delbrueckii and Streptococcus thermophiles with values ranged from 3.04 × 104-3.40 × 104 cfu/ml and 2.50 × 104-2.81 × 104 cfu/ml, respectively. Submerged culture of P. pulmonarius with addition of agro-wastes enhanced yield of EPS. The EPS exhibited bio-functional properties like antimicrobial, antioxidant and prebiotic activities. Hence, agrowastes can be recycled in submerged fermentation with fungi to produce promising biomaterials for biopharmaceutical applications.

M. B. Morais A, Freitas AC, C. F. R. Ferreira I, Pintado M. Valorization of Mushroom By-Products as a Source of Value-Added Compounds and Potential Applications

Nowadays, the food sector is highly concerned with environmental issues and foreseen to develop strategies to reduce waste and losses resulting from activities developed in the food system. An approach is to increment added value to the agro-industrial wastes, which might provide economic growth and environmental protection, contributing to a circular economy. Mushroom by-products represent a disposal problem, but they are also promising sources of important compounds, which may be used due to their functional and nutritional properties. Research has been developed in different fields to obtain value added solutions for the by-products generated during mushroom production and processing. Bioactive compounds have been obtained and applied in the development of nutraceutical and pharmaceutical formulations. Additionally, other applications have been explored and include animal feed, fertilizer, bioremediation, energy production, bio-based materials, cosmetics and cosmeceuticals. The main purpose of this review is to highlight the relevant composition of mushroom by-products and discuss their potential as a source of functional compounds and other applications. Future research needs to explore pilot and industrial scale extraction methods to understand the technological feasibility and the economic sustainability of the bioactive compounds extraction and valorization towards different applications.

Wheat flour, an inexpensive medium for in vitro cultivation of coprophilous fungus Coprinopsis cinerea

Coprinopsis cinerea, a coprophilous basidiomycetous fungus generally called as inky cap mushroom is used as a model organism to study the evolution of fruiting bodies in higher fungi. Herbivorous animal dung is a major source of Coprinopsis cinerea, as it contains high carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus elements. Due to the extensive application of Coprinopsis cinerea in Genetics, Molecular Biology and Microbial Biotechnology it is necessary to explore a suitable inexpensive medium for its in vitro cultivation. In our present study, we found that 2% wheat flour medium supported the vegetative growth and induced the fruiting body formation within 10 days at 30°C, pH 6 under dark compared to malt extract amended media. The number of fruiting bodies and biomass of fruiting bodies were also found higher in wheat flour medium compared to other media tested with similar cultural conditions.