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Knoedler S, Hoch CC, Huelsboemer L, Knoedler L, Stögner VA, Pomahac B, Kauke-Navarro M, Colen D. Postoperative free flap monitoring in reconstructive surgery-man or machine? Front Surg 2023; 10:1130566. [PMID: 36911625 PMCID: PMC9992807 DOI: 10.3389/fsurg.2023.1130566] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2022] [Accepted: 02/07/2023] [Indexed: 02/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Free tissue transfer is widely used for the reconstruction of complex tissue defects. The survival of free flaps depends on the patency and integrity of the microvascular anastomosis. Accordingly, the early detection of vascular comprise and prompt intervention are indispensable to increase flap survival rates. Such monitoring strategies are commonly integrated into the perioperative algorithm, with clinical examination still being considered the gold standard for routine free flap monitoring. Despite its widespread acceptance as state of the art, the clinical examination also has its pitfalls, such as the limited applicability in buried flaps and the risk of poor interrater agreement due to inconsistent flap (failure) appearances. To compensate for these shortcomings, a plethora of alternative monitoring tools have been proposed in recent years, each of them with inherent strengths and limitations. Given the ongoing demographic change, the number of older patients requiring free flap reconstruction, e.g., after cancer resection, is rising. Yet, age-related morphologic changes may complicate the free flap evaluation in elderly patients and delay the prompt detection of clinical signs of flap compromise. In this review, we provide an overview of currently available and employed methods for free flap monitoring, with a special focus on elderly patients and how senescence may impact standard free flap monitoring strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel Knoedler
- Department of Plastic, Hand and Reconstructive Surgery, University Hospital Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
- Department of Surgery, Division of Plastic Surgery, Yale School of Medicine, Yale New Haven Hospital,New Haven, CT, United States
- Correspondence: Samuel Knoedler Martin Kauke-Navarro
| | - Cosima C. Hoch
- Department of Otolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, Rechts der Isar Hospital, Technical University Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Lioba Huelsboemer
- Department of Surgery, Division of Plastic Surgery, Yale School of Medicine, Yale New Haven Hospital,New Haven, CT, United States
| | - Leonard Knoedler
- Department of Surgery, Division of Plastic Surgery, Yale School of Medicine, Yale New Haven Hospital,New Haven, CT, United States
| | - Viola A. Stögner
- Department of Surgery, Division of Plastic Surgery, Yale School of Medicine, Yale New Haven Hospital,New Haven, CT, United States
| | - Bohdan Pomahac
- Department of Surgery, Division of Plastic Surgery, Yale School of Medicine, Yale New Haven Hospital,New Haven, CT, United States
| | - Martin Kauke-Navarro
- Department of Surgery, Division of Plastic Surgery, Yale School of Medicine, Yale New Haven Hospital,New Haven, CT, United States
- Correspondence: Samuel Knoedler Martin Kauke-Navarro
| | - David Colen
- Department of Surgery, Division of Plastic Surgery, Yale School of Medicine, Yale New Haven Hospital,New Haven, CT, United States
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Smit JM, Negenborn VL, Jansen SM, Jaspers MEH, de Vries R, Heymans MW, Winters HAH, van Leeuwen TG, Mullender MG, Krekel NMA. Intraoperative evaluation of perfusion in free flap surgery: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Microsurgery 2018; 38:804-818. [DOI: 10.1002/micr.30320] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2017] [Revised: 02/03/2018] [Accepted: 03/02/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jan Maerten Smit
- Department of Plastic, Reconstructive & Hand Surgery; VU University Medical Centre; Amsterdam The Netherlands
| | - Vera L. Negenborn
- Department of Plastic, Reconstructive & Hand Surgery; VU University Medical Centre; Amsterdam The Netherlands
- Amsterdam Public Health research institute; VU University Medical Center; Amsterdam The Netherlands
| | - Sanne M. Jansen
- Department of Plastic, Reconstructive & Hand Surgery; Academical Medical Center; Amsterdam The Netherlands
| | - Mariëlle E. H. Jaspers
- Department of Plastic, Reconstructive & Hand Surgery; VU University Medical Centre; Amsterdam The Netherlands
- Association of Dutch Burn Centers; Beverwijk The Netherlands
| | - Ralph de Vries
- Medical Library, Vrije Universiteit; Amsterdam The Netherlands
| | - Martijn W. Heymans
- Department of Epidemiology & Biostatistics; VU University Medical Centre; Amsterdam The Netherlands
| | - Hay A. H. Winters
- Department of Plastic, Reconstructive & Hand Surgery; VU University Medical Centre; Amsterdam The Netherlands
| | - Ton G. van Leeuwen
- Department of. Biomedical Engineering & Physics; Academical Medical Center; Amsterdam The Netherlands
| | - Margriet G. Mullender
- Department of Plastic, Reconstructive & Hand Surgery; VU University Medical Centre; Amsterdam The Netherlands
- Amsterdam Movement Sciences; VU University Medical Center; Amsterdam The Netherlands
| | - Nicole M. A. Krekel
- Department of Plastic, Reconstructive & Hand Surgery; VU University Medical Centre; Amsterdam The Netherlands
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Locally injected autologous platelet-rich plasma enhanced tissue perfusion and improved survival of long subdermal plexus skin flaps in dogs. Vet Comp Orthop Traumatol 2014; 27:379-86. [PMID: 25088504 DOI: 10.3415/vcot-14-02-0030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2014] [Accepted: 07/17/2014] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Distal flap necrosis remains a major complication in subdermal plexus (random) skin flaps. Platelet-rich plasma (PRP) has been shown to improve the survival of ischemic random skin flaps in rats. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of locally injected autologous PRP on the survival of long (5:1 length-to-width ratio) subdermal plexus skin flaps in dogs. METHODS A 2x10 cm subdermal plexus skin flap was created bilaterally on the abdominal wall of six Beagle dogs. One randomly selected side received 2.5 ml of fresh auto-logous PRP injected evenly between sutures underneath the flap, whereas the other side was left untreated (control). Skin flap survival was evaluated macroscopically, histologically and by laser-Doppler flowmetry measurements of tissue perfusion. RESULTS Flap percentage survival on day 10 (96.3% versus 74.5%; p = 0.046) and tissue perfusion (p <0.036) were significantly higher in PRP-treated flaps compared with controls. Histologically, there was less oedema in PRP-treated flaps compared to controls (p = 0.01), whereas collagen production and angiogenesis did not differ significantly between the two groups. CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE The use of locally injected autologous PRP increases tissue perfusion and improves the survival of long subdermal plexus skin flaps in dogs.
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Florid hyperaemia arising in ALT free flaps harvested from old skin graft donor sites. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF PLASTIC SURGERY 2013. [DOI: 10.1007/s00238-013-0828-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Edmunds MC, Wigmore S, Kluth D. In situ transverse rectus abdominis myocutaneous flap: a rat model of myocutaneous ischemia reperfusion injury. J Vis Exp 2013. [PMID: 23770929 DOI: 10.3791/50473] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Free tissue transfer is the gold standard of reconstructive surgery to repair complex defects not amenable to local options or those requiring composite tissue. Ischemia reperfusion injury (IRI) is a known cause of partial free flap failure and has no effective treatment. Establishing a laboratory model of this injury can prove costly both financially as larger mammals are conventionally used and in the expertise required by the technical difficulty of these procedures typically requires employing an experienced microsurgeon. This publication and video demonstrate the effective use of a model of IRI in rats which does not require microsurgical expertise. This procedure is an in situ model of a transverse abdominis myocutaneous (TRAM) flap where atraumatic clamps are utilized to reproduce the ischemia-reperfusion injury associated with this surgery. A laser Doppler Imaging (LDI) scanner is employed to assess flap perfusion and the image processing software, Image J to assess percentage area skin survival as a primary outcome measure of injury.
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Arginine Improves Microcirculation in the Free Transverse Rectus Abdominis Myocutaneous Flap after Breast Reconstruction: A Randomized, Double-Blind Clinical Trial. Plast Reconstr Surg 2011; 127:2216-2223. [DOI: 10.1097/prs.0b013e3182131c01] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Hamza F, Yousif J, Kotti B. La reconstruction mammaire par TRAM libre en chirurgie libérale : à propos de 20 cas consécutifs. ANN CHIR PLAST ESTH 2010; 55:524-30. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anplas.2009.11.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2009] [Accepted: 11/07/2009] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Booi DI. Perioperative fluid overload increases anastomosis thrombosis in the free TRAM flap used for breast reconstruction. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF PLASTIC SURGERY 2010; 34:81-86. [PMID: 21475651 PMCID: PMC3062757 DOI: 10.1007/s00238-010-0466-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2009] [Accepted: 06/03/2010] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
To increase perfusion pressure with vasoactive drugs may be in conflict with the opinion of the reconstructive surgeon who maintains that the systemic administration of vasoactive agents causes vasoconstriction of the pedicle artery and the microvasculature. In free flap surgery, deliberate fluid therapy is used with a minimum of vasoactive drugs. This retrospective study was performed to analyse the perioperative fluid therapy, its effect on hemodynamic parameters and on the outcome of free flap surgery. One hundred and four patients were included in this retrospective study. The muscle sparing free transverse rectus abdominis myocutaneous flap was used for breast reconstruction. Perioperative hemodynamic data was used for this study. Twenty-seven patients had one or two complications requiring return to the operating room (OR). Two cases returned to the OR because of postoperative bleeding; in 11 patients, the anastomosis was revised. The reason for surgery in the latter group was venous stasis, due to thrombus formation at the venous anastomosis. The volume of fluid therapy was significantly higher in patients who returned to the OR due to thrombus formation at the anastomosis. Based on the results of this study, restricted intravenous fluid therapy or guided fluid therapy is recommended. Invasive monitoring such as central venous pressure and invasive arterial monitoring is recommended. Fluid loss should be replaced, and fluid overload should be avoided when the breast is reconstructed using free-tissue transfers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Darren Ivar Booi
- Department of Plastic, Reconstructive and Hand Surgery, Maastricht University Medical Centre, P.O. Box 5800, 6202 AZ Maastricht, The Netherlands
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Schlosser S, Wirth R, Plock JA, Serov A, Banic A, Erni D. Application of a new laser Doppler imaging system in planning and monitoring of surgical flaps. JOURNAL OF BIOMEDICAL OPTICS 2010; 15:036023. [PMID: 20615025 DOI: 10.1117/1.3449598] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
There is a demand for technologies able to assess the perfusion of surgical flaps quantitatively and reliably to avoid ischemic complications. The aim of this study is to test a new high-speed high-definition laser Doppler imaging (LDI) system (FluxEXPLORER, Microvascular Imaging, Lausanne, Switzerland) in terms of preoperative mapping of the vascular supply (perforator vessels) and postoperative flow monitoring. The FluxEXPLORER performs perfusion mapping of an area 9 x 9 cm with a resolution of 256 x 256 pixels within 6 s in high-definition imaging mode. The sensitivity and predictability to localize perforators is expressed by the coincidence of preoperatively assessed LDI high flow spots with intraoperatively verified perforators in nine patients. 18 free flaps are monitored before, during, and after total ischemia. 63% of all verified perforators correspond to a high flow spot, and 38% of all high flow spots correspond to a verified perforator (positive predictive value). All perfused flaps reveal a value of above 221 perfusion units (PUs), and all values obtained in the ischemic flaps are beneath 187 PU. In summary, we conclude that the present LDI system can serve as a reliable, fast, and easy-to-handle tool to detect ischemia in free flaps, whereas perforator vessels cannot be detected appropriately.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Schlosser
- University of Bern, Department of Plastic, Reconstructive and Hand Surgery Inselspital and Department of Clinical Research, CH-3010 Bern, Switzerland
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