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Zhou T, Hao J, Tang Q, Chandarajoti K, Ye W, Fan C, Wang X, Wang C, Zhang K, Han X, Zhou W, Ge Y. Antimicrobial activity and structure-activity relationships of molecules containing mono- or di- or oligosaccharides: An update. Bioorg Chem 2024; 148:107406. [PMID: 38728907 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioorg.2024.107406] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2024] [Revised: 04/17/2024] [Accepted: 04/25/2024] [Indexed: 05/12/2024]
Abstract
Bacterial infections are the second leading cause of death worldwide, and the evolution and widespread distribution of antibiotic-resistance elements in bacterial pathogens exacerbate the threat crisis. Carbohydrates participate in bacterial infection, drug resistance and the process of host immune regulation. Numerous antimicrobials derived from carbohydrates or contained carbohydrate scaffolds that are conducive to an increase in pathogenic bacteria targeting, the physicochemical properties and druggability profiles. In the paper, according to the type and number of sugar residues contained in antimicrobial molecules collected from the literatures ranging from 2014 to 2024, the antimicrobial activities, action mechanisms and structure-activity relationships were delineated and summarized, for purpose to provide the guiding template to select the type and size of sugars in the design of oligosaccharide-based antimicrobials to fight the looming antibiotic resistance crisis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiantian Zhou
- School of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Guangdong Pharmaceutical University, E. 280, University town, Waihuan Rd, Panyu, Guangzhou 510006, Guangdong, China; Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, 200241, Shanghai, China
| | - Jiongkai Hao
- Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, 200241, Shanghai, China; Key Laboratory of Veterinary Chemical Drugs and Pharmaceutics, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, 200241, China
| | - Qun Tang
- Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, 200241, Shanghai, China; Key Laboratory of Veterinary Chemical Drugs and Pharmaceutics, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, 200241, China
| | - Kasemsiri Chandarajoti
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Prince of Songkla University, Hat Yai, Songkhla, 90112, Thailand; Drug Delivery System Excellence Center, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Prince of Songkla University, Hat‑Yai, Songkhla, 90112, Thailand
| | - Wenchong Ye
- Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, 200241, Shanghai, China; Key Laboratory of Veterinary Chemical Drugs and Pharmaceutics, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, 200241, China
| | - Chuangchuang Fan
- Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, 200241, Shanghai, China; Key Laboratory of Veterinary Chemical Drugs and Pharmaceutics, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, 200241, China
| | - Xiaoyang Wang
- Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, 200241, Shanghai, China; Key Laboratory of Veterinary Chemical Drugs and Pharmaceutics, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, 200241, China
| | - Chunmei Wang
- Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, 200241, Shanghai, China; Key Laboratory of Veterinary Chemical Drugs and Pharmaceutics, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, 200241, China
| | - Keyu Zhang
- Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, 200241, Shanghai, China; Key Laboratory of Veterinary Chemical Drugs and Pharmaceutics, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, 200241, China
| | - Xiangan Han
- Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, 200241, Shanghai, China; Key Laboratory of Veterinary Chemical Drugs and Pharmaceutics, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, 200241, China
| | - Wen Zhou
- Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, 200241, Shanghai, China; Key Laboratory of Veterinary Chemical Drugs and Pharmaceutics, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, 200241, China.
| | - Yuewei Ge
- School of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Guangdong Pharmaceutical University, E. 280, University town, Waihuan Rd, Panyu, Guangzhou 510006, Guangdong, China.
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2
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Tunç MN, Guéneau V, Loux V, Del Campo R, Carballido Lopez R, Briandet R. Genome sequences of four colistin-resistant ESKAPE bacterial strains isolated from patients within the same hospital. Microbiol Resour Announc 2024; 13:e0087423. [PMID: 38112476 DOI: 10.1128/mra.00874-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2023] [Accepted: 11/18/2023] [Indexed: 12/21/2023] Open
Abstract
The genomes of four clinical Gram-negative ESKAPE bacterial strains highly resistant to the last-resort antibiotic colistin were sequenced and analyzed. The strains were found to carry multidrug-resistant genes besides colistin-resistant genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Merve Nur Tunç
- Université Paris-Saclay, INRAE, AgroParisTech, Micalis Institute , Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | - Virgile Guéneau
- Université Paris-Saclay, INRAE, AgroParisTech, Micalis Institute , Jouy-en-Josas, France
- Lallemand SAS , Blagnac, France
| | - Valentin Loux
- Université Paris-Saclay, INRAE, MaIAGE , Jouy-en-Josas, France
- INRAE, BioinfOmics, MIGALE bioinformatics facility, Université Paris-Saclay , Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | - Rosa Del Campo
- Servicio de Microbiología, Hospital Universitario Ramón y Cajal and Instituto Ramón y Cajal de Investigación Sanitaria , Madrid, Spain
| | - Rut Carballido Lopez
- Université Paris-Saclay, INRAE, AgroParisTech, Micalis Institute , Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | - Romain Briandet
- Université Paris-Saclay, INRAE, AgroParisTech, Micalis Institute , Jouy-en-Josas, France
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Jenkins CH, Scott AE, O’Neill PA, Norville IH, Prior JL, Ireland PM. The Arabinose 5-Phosphate Isomerase KdsD Is Required for Virulence in Burkholderia pseudomallei. J Bacteriol 2023; 205:e0003423. [PMID: 37458584 PMCID: PMC10448790 DOI: 10.1128/jb.00034-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2023] [Accepted: 06/06/2023] [Indexed: 08/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Burkholderia pseudomallei is the causative agent of melioidosis, which is endemic primarily in Southeast Asia and northern Australia but is increasingly being seen in other tropical and subtropical regions of the world. Melioidosis is associated with high morbidity and mortality rates, which is mediated by the wide range of virulence factors encoded by B. pseudomallei. These virulence determinants include surface polysaccharides such as lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and capsular polysaccharides (CPS). Here, we investigated a predicted arabinose-5-phosphate isomerase (API) similar to KdsD in B. pseudomallei strain K96243. KdsD is required for the production of the highly conserved 3-deoxy-d-manno-octulosonic acid (Kdo), a key sugar in the core region of LPS. Recombinant KdsD was expressed and purified, and API activity was determined. Although a putative API paralogue (KpsF) is also predicted to be encoded, the deletion of kdsD resulted in growth defects, loss of motility, reduced survival in RAW 264.7 murine macrophages, and attenuation in a BALB/c mouse model of melioidosis. Suppressor mutations were observed during a phenotypic screen for motility, revealing single nucleotide polymorphisms or indels located in the poorly understood CPS type IV cluster. Crucially, suppressor mutations did not result in reversion of attenuation in vivo. This study demonstrates the importance of KdsD for B. pseudomallei virulence and highlights further the complex nature of the polysaccharides it produces. IMPORTANCE The intrinsic resistance of B. pseudomallei to many antibiotics complicates treatment. This opportunistic pathogen possesses a wide range of virulence factors, resulting in severe and potentially fatal disease. Virulence factors as targets for drug development offer an alternative approach to combat pathogenic bacteria. Prior to initiating early drug discovery approaches, it is important to demonstrate that disruption of the target gene will prevent the development of disease. This study highlights the fact that KdsD is crucial for virulence of B. pseudomallei in an animal model of infection and provides supportive phenotypic characterization that builds a foundation for future therapeutic development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher H. Jenkins
- Chemical, Biological and Radiological Division, Defence Science and Technology Laboratory, Salisbury, Wiltshire, United Kingdom
| | - Andrew E. Scott
- Chemical, Biological and Radiological Division, Defence Science and Technology Laboratory, Salisbury, Wiltshire, United Kingdom
| | - Paul A. O’Neill
- University of Exeter Sequencing Service, Exeter, United Kingdom
| | - Isobel H. Norville
- Chemical, Biological and Radiological Division, Defence Science and Technology Laboratory, Salisbury, Wiltshire, United Kingdom
- Biosciences Department, University of Exeter, Exeter, United Kingdom
| | - Joann L. Prior
- Chemical, Biological and Radiological Division, Defence Science and Technology Laboratory, Salisbury, Wiltshire, United Kingdom
- Biosciences Department, University of Exeter, Exeter, United Kingdom
- Southampton General Hospital, Southampton, United Kingdom
| | - Philip M. Ireland
- Chemical, Biological and Radiological Division, Defence Science and Technology Laboratory, Salisbury, Wiltshire, United Kingdom
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4
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Iqbal MW, Riaz T, Mahmood S, Ali K, Khan IM, Rehman A, Zhang W, Mu W. A review on selective l-fucose/d-arabinose isomerases for biocatalytic production of l-fuculose/d-ribulose. Int J Biol Macromol 2020; 168:558-571. [PMID: 33296692 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2020.12.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2020] [Revised: 11/16/2020] [Accepted: 12/03/2020] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
L-Fuculose and D-ribulose are kinds of rare sugars used in food, agriculture, and medicine industries. These are pentoses and categorized into the two main groups, aldo pentoses and ketopentoses. There are 8 aldo- and 4 ketopentoses and only fewer are natural, while others are rare sugars found in a very small amount in nature. These sugars have great commercial applications, especially in many kinds of drugs in the medicine industry. The synthesis of these sugars is very expensive, difficult by chemical methods due to its absence in nature, and could not meet industry demands. The pentose izumoring strategy offers a complete enzymatic tactic to link all kinds of pentoses using different enzymes. The enzymatic production of L-fuculose and D-ribulose through L-fucose isomerase (L-FI) and D-arabinose isomerase (D-AI) is the inexpensive and uncomplicated method up till now. Both enzymes have similar kinds of isomerizing mechanisms and each enzyme can catalyze both L-fucose and D-arabinose. In this review article, the enzymatic process of biochemically characterized L-FI & D-AI, their application to produce L-fuculose and D-ribulose and its uses in food, agriculture, and medicine industries are reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Waheed Iqbal
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu 214122, China; International Joint Laboratory on Food Safety, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu 214122, China
| | - Tahreem Riaz
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu 214122, China; International Joint Laboratory on Food Safety, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu 214122, China
| | - Shahid Mahmood
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu 214122, China; International Joint Laboratory on Food Safety, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu 214122, China
| | - Khubaib Ali
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu 214122, China; International Joint Laboratory on Food Safety, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu 214122, China
| | - Imran Mahmood Khan
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu 214122, China; International Joint Laboratory on Food Safety, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu 214122, China
| | - Abdur Rehman
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu 214122, China; International Joint Laboratory on Food Safety, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu 214122, China
| | - Wenli Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu 214122, China; International Joint Laboratory on Food Safety, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu 214122, China.
| | - Wanmeng Mu
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu 214122, China; International Joint Laboratory on Food Safety, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu 214122, China
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Vacchini M, Edwards R, Guizzardi R, Palmioli A, Ciaramelli C, Paiotta A, Airoldi C, La Ferla B, Cipolla L. Glycan Carriers As Glycotools for Medicinal Chemistry Applications. Curr Med Chem 2019; 26:6349-6398. [DOI: 10.2174/0929867326666190104164653] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2018] [Revised: 11/07/2018] [Accepted: 12/18/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Carbohydrates are one of the most powerful and versatile classes of biomolecules that nature
uses to regulate organisms’ biochemistry, modulating plenty of signaling events within cells, triggering
a plethora of physiological and pathological cellular behaviors. In this framework, glycan carrier
systems or carbohydrate-decorated materials constitute interesting and relevant tools for medicinal
chemistry applications. In the last few decades, efforts have been focused, among others, on the development
of multivalent glycoconjugates, biosensors, glycoarrays, carbohydrate-decorated biomaterials
for regenerative medicine, and glyconanoparticles. This review aims to provide the reader with a general
overview of the different carbohydrate carrier systems that have been developed as tools in different
medicinal chemistry approaches relying on carbohydrate-protein interactions. Given the extent of
this topic, the present review will focus on selected examples that highlight the advancements and potentialities
offered by this specific area of research, rather than being an exhaustive literature survey of
any specific glyco-functionalized system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mattia Vacchini
- Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, University of Milano-Bicocca Milano, Italy
| | - Rana Edwards
- Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, University of Milano-Bicocca Milano, Italy
| | - Roberto Guizzardi
- Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, University of Milano-Bicocca Milano, Italy
| | - Alessandro Palmioli
- Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, University of Milano-Bicocca Milano, Italy
| | - Carlotta Ciaramelli
- Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, University of Milano-Bicocca Milano, Italy
| | - Alice Paiotta
- Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, University of Milano-Bicocca Milano, Italy
| | - Cristina Airoldi
- Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, University of Milano-Bicocca Milano, Italy
| | - Barbara La Ferla
- Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, University of Milano-Bicocca Milano, Italy
| | - Laura Cipolla
- Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, University of Milano-Bicocca Milano, Italy
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6
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Sperandeo P, Polissi A, De Fabiani E. Fat Matters for Bugs: How Lipids and Lipid Modifications Make the Difference in Bacterial Life. EUR J LIPID SCI TECH 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/ejlt.201900204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Paola Sperandeo
- Dipartimento di Scienze Farmacologiche e BiomolecolariUniversità degli Studi di MilanoVia Balzaretti 920133MilanoItaly
| | - Alessandra Polissi
- Dipartimento di Scienze Farmacologiche e BiomolecolariUniversità degli Studi di MilanoVia Balzaretti 920133MilanoItaly
| | - Emma De Fabiani
- Dipartimento di Scienze Farmacologiche e BiomolecolariUniversità degli Studi di MilanoVia Balzaretti 920133MilanoItaly
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7
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Sperandeo P, Martorana AM, Polissi A. Lipopolysaccharide biogenesis and transport at the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Cell Biol Lipids 2016; 1862:1451-1460. [PMID: 27760389 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbalip.2016.10.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2016] [Revised: 10/11/2016] [Accepted: 10/13/2016] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
The outer membrane (OM) of Gram-negative bacteria is an asymmetric lipid bilayer containing a unique glycolipid, lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in its outer leaflet. LPS molecules confer to the OM peculiar permeability barrier properties enabling Gram-negative bacteria to exclude many toxic compounds, including clinically useful antibiotics, and to survive harsh environments. Transport of LPS poses several problems to the cells due to the amphipatic nature of this molecule. In this review we summarize the current knowledge on the LPS transport machinery, discuss the challenges associated with this process and present the solutions that bacterial cells have evolved to address the problem of LPS transport and assembly at the cell surface. Finally, we discuss how knowledge on LPS biogenesis can be translated for the development of novel antimicrobial therapies. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Bacterial Lipids edited by Russell E. Bishop.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paola Sperandeo
- Dipartimento di Scienze Farmacologiche e Biomolecolari, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy.
| | - Alessandra M Martorana
- Dipartimento di Biotecnologie e Bioscienze, Università degli Studi di Milano-Bicocca, Milan, Italy
| | - Alessandra Polissi
- Dipartimento di Scienze Farmacologiche e Biomolecolari, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy.
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Ward MS, Silva I, Martinez W, Jefferson J, Rahman S, Garcia JM, Kanichar D, Roppiyakuda L, Kosmowska E, Faust MA, Tran KP, Chow F, Buglo E, Zhou F, Groziak MP, Xu HH. Identification of cellular targets of a series of boron heterocycles using TIPA II-A sensitive target identification platform. Bioorg Med Chem 2016; 24:3267-75. [PMID: 27301675 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2016.05.058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2016] [Revised: 05/23/2016] [Accepted: 05/28/2016] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
One of the hurdles in the discovery of antibiotics is the difficulty of linking antibacterial compounds to their cellular targets. Our laboratory has employed a genome-wide approach of over-expressing essential genes in order to identify cellular targets of antibacterial inhibitors. Our objective in this project was to develop and validate a more sensitive disk diffusion based platform of target identification (Target Identification Platform for Antibacterials version 2; TIPA II) using a collection of cell clones in an Escherichia coli mutant (AS19) host with increased outer membrane permeability. Five known antibiotics/inhibitors and 28 boron heterocycles were tested by TIPA II assay, in conjunction with the original assay TIPA. The TIPA II was more sensitive than TIPA because eight boron heterocycles previously found to be inactive to AG1 cells in TIPA assays exhibited activity to AS19 cells. For 15 boron heterocycles, resistant colonies were observed within the zones of inhibition only on the inducing plates in TIPA II assays. DNA sequencing confirmed that resistant clones harbor plasmids with fabI gene as insert, indicating that these boron heterocycles all target enoyl ACP reductase. Additionally, cell-based assays and dose response curved obtained indicated that for two boron heterocycle inhibitors, the fabI cell clone in AG1 (wild-type) host cells exhibited at least 11 fold more resistance under induced conditions than under non-induced conditions. Moreover, TIPA II also identified cellular targets of known antibacterial inhibitors triclosan, phosphomycin, trimethoprim, diazaborine and thiolactomycin, further validating the utility of the new system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew S Ward
- Department of Biological Sciences, California State University Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90032, USA
| | - Isba Silva
- Department of Biological Sciences, California State University Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90032, USA
| | - Walfre Martinez
- Department of Biological Sciences, California State University Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90032, USA
| | - Jameka Jefferson
- Department of Biological Sciences, California State University Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90032, USA
| | - Shakila Rahman
- Department of Biological Sciences, California State University Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90032, USA
| | - Jeanie M Garcia
- Department of Biological Sciences, California State University Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90032, USA
| | - Divya Kanichar
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, California State University East Bay, Hayward, CA 94542, USA
| | - Lance Roppiyakuda
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, California State University East Bay, Hayward, CA 94542, USA
| | - Ewa Kosmowska
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, California State University East Bay, Hayward, CA 94542, USA
| | - Michelle A Faust
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, California State University East Bay, Hayward, CA 94542, USA
| | - Kim P Tran
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, California State University East Bay, Hayward, CA 94542, USA
| | - Felicia Chow
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, California State University East Bay, Hayward, CA 94542, USA
| | - Elena Buglo
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, California State University East Bay, Hayward, CA 94542, USA
| | - Feimeng Zhou
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, California State University Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90032, USA
| | - Michael P Groziak
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, California State University East Bay, Hayward, CA 94542, USA
| | - H Howard Xu
- Department of Biological Sciences, California State University Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90032, USA.
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